What is demand? This is the most important characteristic of the market. In marketing, this is the main object of continuous observation, detailed study and influence on people.
Demand (by definition) is a need presented in the market and constantly supported by money. It is impossible to talk about its solvency, because demand of any kind, by definition, is solvent, and otherwise it is simply a need. This concept can also be defined as the consumer's ability and intention to purchase a specific product in a specific place and at a specific time. Demand patterns vary.

Consumerism is a complex phenomenon that consists of different elements that have certain social, economic, demographic, and regional characteristics. Such components make it possible to differentiate types of consumer demand by various signs. These steps make it easier to adjust. Today there are the following types of demand:

1. Negative (for goods or services). The market does not accept the product or service. in this case is to study the source of resistance and determine the ability marketing program change negative attitudes to positive ones by modernizing the product and even more actively stimulating buyers.

2. Lack of demand. It happens that consumers are not attracted to a product or are indifferent to it. What to do? How to proceed? It is necessary to find ways to connect the basic properties of a product with natural (everyday) and its interests.

3. Hidden. This is the one that doesn't exist. Many people dream of having a product that does not exist at all. In this case, the task of marketing will be to determine the size of the potential market and create effective products and services that can satisfy this demand.

4. What other types of demand exist? Let's look further: falling. When saturated with goods, it falls lower and lower. Marketers need to conduct an in-depth analysis of the reasons for its decline, and also find out whether it is possible to again stimulate sales of goods (services) by searching for new markets and modifying goods.

5. Irregular. Depending on the time of year and even the day, sales of goods may fluctuate. It is necessary to look for ways to smooth out such fluctuations and distribute demand over time using flexible prices, various incentive measures and other methods of motivating consumers.

6. Supported. Typically, in such a situation, the company is satisfied with its own trade turnover. Types of demand are characterized by its shortage, and in the case when demand is constantly maintained, this is the most pleasant situation. The task of marketing is to maintain the existing level, despite the constantly changing preferences and tastes of consumers, and growing competition. The product must be of high quality, and company employees constantly evaluate the level of customer satisfaction in order to then analyze the correctness of their own actions.

7. Demand is excessive. In this state of affairs, it is higher than the offer; the company cannot (or does not want) to satisfy it. We need to look for ways to permanently or temporarily reduce such high demand. This can be done by raising prices or reducing service. This company policy is called demarketing.

8. Unwanted. for a product that has proven itself to be harmful to health. In this case, it is necessary to convince consumers of “bad” goods to refuse bad habits; disseminate frightening information, provide statistical data; sharply raise prices and limit the availability of this product.

So we looked at the types of demand in marketing.

Depending on the state of demand in the market, it becomes necessary to apply different strategies or types of marketing.

The following are distinguished: types of demand: negative, absence of it, hidden, falling, irregular (seasonal), full-fledged, excessive and irrational.

To manage demand, various types of marketing: conversion, stimulating, developmental, remarketing, synchromarketing, supporting, demarketing, counteracting marketing.

Conversion Marketing is used in case of negative demand and provides for the development of a marketing plan (a set of advertising, promotional measures, etc.) that will contribute to the resumption of growth in demand for relevant goods and services

Incentive Marketing associated with the availability of goods and services for which there is no demand due to disinterest or lack of information among consumers. Therefore, a set of marketing activities is being developed that significantly stimulates consumers to generate demand.

Developmental marketing used when it is necessary to generate demand for new goods and services, therefore its task is to intensify marketing activities to transform potential (hidden) demand into real demand.

Remarketing is a special set of measures to revive falling demand during a certain period life cycle goods and services (advertising, special discounts, benefits, etc.).

Synchromarketing used in fluctuating or seasonal demand to stabilize sales, level and minimize the consequences of fluctuations in demand (for example, passenger transportation in summer and winter) by introducing noticeable special discounts on prices (tariffs) during the recession, introducing various benefits and additional incentives for consumers.

Supportive Marketing used when there is full demand, when the volume and structure of demand for goods and services fully correspond to the level and structure of supply. The task of this type of marketing is to maintain interest in such goods and services in a more relaxed normal mode.

Demarketing is a set of marketing measures to counteract excessive demand exceeding supply for goods needed by consumers until the volume of their production increases (reducing advertising, some price increases, etc.).

Adversarial Marketing used to reduce demand for goods that, from the point of view of society and consumers, are regarded as irrational (alcohol, cigarettes, etc.). In this case, anti-advertising, advertising bans, price increases, and the release of special information explaining the irrationality of such products are used.

Almost all of the listed types of marketing are advisable to use in the market transport services, especially synchromarketing, remarketing, developing and counteracting, in particular, to align seasonal transportation of goods and passengers during periods of decline in demand for transport services.

Security questions

1. List the types of demand and give them a brief description.

2. Name and characterize the types of marketing depending on the state of demand in the market.

COMPREHENSIVE MARKET RESEARCH

Concept of market research

Comprehensive research of product markets is one of the main functions of marketing. This is the basis of a marketing strategy.

It includes the following points.

1. Study of the product (service):

• novelty and competitiveness;
• compliance with legal regulations;
• ability to satisfy customer requirements;
• the ability to improve products in accordance with the ever-increasing requirements of customers.

2. Market research:

• geographical location;
• market capacity, sales volume;
• commodity structure;
• methods and methods of market research;
• development trend (forecast).

3. Study of competitors:

• the main ones, holding the largest market share;
• competitors who are most dynamically developing their activities;
• trademarks(signs) of competitors' products;
• features of competitors' products by which customers purchase them;
• forms and methods of sales activities;
• the distribution and sales channels used;
• main directions for product improvement;
• official data on the competitor’s profit;
• trading image of competitors.

4. Buyer research:

• characteristics of buyers;
• typical uses of the product;
• incentives purchases;
• factors shaping consumer preferences;
• segmentation;
• methods of purchase, time of purchase;
• needs not satisfied by the product;
• studying legal aspects
• legal norms;
• legal institutions that can provide advice if necessary.

A full-fledged market analysis involves a sequential, step-by-step passage of all the listed elements of the study. In this case, the results obtained at one stage may require data correction at other stages. Only systematic and comprehensive market research will allow you to obtain reliable and reliable results.

For a specific enterprise, in accordance with the specifics of its activities, the ratio and degree of importance of each of the marketing elements will be different. Moreover, the ratio of the main elements of marketing in terms of their importance for the success of the enterprise in competition, for achieving high financial results constantly changes over time in all industries, depending on changes in the structure of production costs and the economic environment in which enterprises operate. However, this does not mean that one of the marketing elements can be neglected.

Marketing market research can be divided into continuous and occasional. Each of them is carried out according to a specific scheme and includes the following stages:

• formulation of research goals, problem statement;
• collecting data - from primary sources (personal interview, survey, questionnaire) or secondary (report, publication);
• systematization and analysis of information;
• interpretation of results, drawing conclusions and recommendations;
• preparing and presenting a report containing the results of the study;
• evaluation of research-based measures.

Product research

A product (service) is a complex multidimensional concept, but the main thing in it is consumer properties, i.e. the ability of a product and service to perform its functions - to satisfy the needs of the one who owns it.

Another important point in connection with a product or service is the need to design it with a clear focus on a specific, pre-identified target group of potential buyers.

It is especially profitable to produce a product or service of “market novelty”, i.e. one that either:

• opens up the opportunity for the consumer to satisfy a completely new need (the so-called “pioneer” product);
• raises the satisfaction of an ordinary well-known need to a new qualitative level;
• allows a wider range of customers to satisfy a known need at a certain level.

Products and services of market novelty are key to the commercial success of an enterprise.

The first decision made by a manufacturer when deciding to enter the market with a new product (service) is the choice of the type(s) of products offered, taking into account the intended buyers: goods (services) for individual use or industrial purposes. This classification is important because it highlights differences in product characteristics and subsequent actions by marketers.

Personal goods and services– these are goods and services intended for the end consumer, for personal, family or household use. The main feature is the application, not the specific essence. For example, a calculator, telephone, vacuum cleaner are personal goods only if they are purchased for personal, family or home use.

Personal services fall into three broad categories. TO services related to the rental of goods, refers to the rental of goods for a certain period, for example, car rental, hotel rooms, transportation. Services With owned goods are associated with the alteration or repair of goods owned by the consumer. Examples include repair services (car, watch and plumbing), garden maintenance, car washing, hairdressing and dry cleaning. Third type - provision of personal services of a non-commercial nature, for example, accounting, legal services and training.

Goods and services for industrial purposes acquired for use in the production of other goods, services or for economic activity. These include heavy equipment, raw materials, finished parts, supplies, cleaning and security services, cash registers. Buyers include industrial enterprises, wholesale or retail, government or other non-profit organizations.

Industrial services are also divided into three main types. Maintenance and repair services include painting, equipment repair and cleaning, security; business advisory services– management consulting, services advertising agencies, accounting and legal services; services related to the rental of goods – rental industrial equipment, freight transportation.

All services are intangible, cannot be stored, the manufacturer and his services are inseparable. They are often purchased on a contract or hire basis, and some firms perform them in-house. General principle: services can be performed by others, but cannot be done without them.

Currently, there are several strategic approaches to creating a product or service (Fig. 2.1.):

• modification;
• pioneer;
• imitation, joint with competitors;
• random.

As can be seen from Fig. 2.1, the most widespread in the creation of goods (services) is modification an approach, the content of which is to change the quality characteristics of a product, service and/or service to them in accordance with the shortcomings identified from the buyer’s point of view. It is the consumer complaints about already manufactured products and their service that serve as the beginning of the modification of goods and services, as well as service for them. Therefore, most Japanese companies follow this path. It is known that the Japanese call themselves “great modifiers” and consider their strong point application of know-how to change the consumer properties of products.

Rice. 2.1. Basic approaches to product creation

The advantage of the modification approach to product creation is, first of all, its market orientation. Being a reflection of real, existing needs, it minimizes the risk of failure when a product enters the market, and therefore becomes the most effective area of ​​product development.

Another significant approach to creating a product or service is pioneer. The content of this approach is the creation in scientific laboratories, based on fundamental scientific research fundamentally new products that provide the company with leadership and a monopoly position in the market for some time. However, this pioneering direction of product creation is characterized by high degree risk. Thus, according to a survey conducted among leading engineering firms in Japan, only about 50% of fundamentally new products turn out to be profitable, while the share of “successful” modified products adequate for consumers is approximately 75%.

The main reason for this phenomenon is that the developers of pioneering, fundamentally new products, unlike manufacturers of modified products, are far from the market and only approximately imagine the situation on it. Quite often, new developments await commercial development for many years.

In order to make fullest use of the results of fundamental developments, companies strive to involve them in studying the possibilities of their practical application as many specialists as possible. However, since basic research constitute the subject of a company's trade secret, then the discussion is carried out primarily among its personnel on the basis of the so-called “U-shaped” management system innovation process. The essence of this system comes down to the following: the highest echelons of the company’s management, with the help of authorized representatives, gradually “lower down” new idea down, and then “raise” it up as the discussion progresses. As a result, specialists at various levels develop their proposals, based on the analysis of which final decisions are made.

However, to date, no organizational measures have led to a change in the general trend: the risk associated with creating an assortment based on a pioneering approach is significantly higher than the risk that a company takes on by modifying a product based on the results of market research.

About a seventh of products are created based on imitation approach, i.e. jointly with competitors, by purchasing licenses or creating joint ventures etc. Thus, marketing focuses on cooperation, communication in the implementation of innovations, and not on competition. Thus, recognizing the need to fend off competition from abroad, the United States made changes to its antimonopoly legislation by allowing competing firms to collaborate on research and development. In this regard, some American companies form temporary research and development partnerships with their competitors. These so-called strategic alliances can be considered an interesting example of both awareness of a problem and a practical response to it.

Thus, goods and services practically do not arise on their own, evidence of this is statistics: only 5% of ideas about a product appear by chance, which once again proves the need:

• high-quality implementation of the analytical function of marketing, based on reliable information;
• planning and management of the innovation process, taking into account the assessment of risks associated with the presence of different approaches to the creation of goods.

The technological chain for creating a product (service) includes the following stages:

• search and selection of ideas;
• commercial analysis of ideas;
• research and development work (R&D);
• pilot production;
• trial sales;
• serial production.

According to foreign data, to create a personal use product that is commercially successful (providing a “normal” profit), it is necessary to study on average about 60 ideas in order to obtain one that most fully meets the promising market requirements. If we take the time required for the entire development cycle as 100%, i.e. from the origin of an idea to entering the market with a new product, then the following picture will emerge. Approximately 5% of the time is spent discussing the 60 ideas available and leaving 15. Then 10% of the time is required to ensure that after the commercial analysis, 5-6 promising ones remain. By the end of development in the design department (approximately 50% of the time that has passed since the start of work), 3 more ideas are eliminated. At the stage of market and laboratory tests, one or two ideas are eliminated. And only after all this the buyer sees the product in front of him.

Rice. 2.2. Scheme of product creation technology

Not every idea deserves further, even initial, development. At a minimum it must satisfy following requirements:

• meet the goals and capabilities of the company, be technically feasible;
• have enough market potential in terms of sales volumes of the future product (service);
• give a product or service specific advantages;
• ensure sufficient profitability of production.

If the idea as a whole satisfies all these criteria, the development of a specific concept for the future product or service begins. The essence of the concept is a clear and precise presentation of the distinctive features of a new product (service), which in the future will serve as the cornerstone in determining its market strategy. The concept of a new product (service) must indicate exactly what benefits the consumer will receive. This approach should be decisive throughout the development of the idea. Based on the intended concept, researchers and developers determine the physical appearance of the product.

Product (service), in high quality which there is no doubt, before the start of mass production, is subjected to a “market test” - a trial sale is carried out in selected markets. This stage of marketing is mandatory in the case of developing a product for individual consumption and desirable in the case of developing a product for industrial purposes. The purpose of a trial sale is to obtain operational commercial information, therefore the main condition for organizing such a sale is accurate answers to the questions asked.

Table 2.1

Time spent on stages product marketing, %

A product or service is not always perceived by consumers in the same way. In order to determine differences in consumer attitudes towards a product, in marketing there is the concept of the product life cycle.

Product life cycle (PLC)– this is the time of existence of a product on the market, i.e. the time period from the beginning to the end of its release and sale in its original form. Product life cycle theory is a concept that describes product sales, profits and marketing strategy from the moment a product is developed until it is withdrawn from the market.

Monitoring of the life cycle is carried out on the basis of the dynamics of two indicators, which, when graphically depicted, form the following two curves: sales volume, gross profit. The behavior over time of these indicators, reflecting the reaction of buyers to the product, makes it possible to distinguish several stages (or stages) of the life cycle: introduction, growth, maturity, saturation, decline (Fig. 2.3).

When studying LCT, it should be kept in mind that the shape of the curve remains more or less the same for most products. However, the duration and intensity of the transition from one stage to another varies greatly depending on the characteristics of the product.

Rice. 2.3. Sales volume and gross profit curves depending on the stage of the product life cycle: – sales volume curve in in value terms; – gross profit curve

Knowledge of the features of the life cycle stages is important, as it allows the company to develop specific marketing activities for each of them in order to extend the period a product is on the market, i.e., the period during which it is in demand and makes a profit.

The first stage of life cycle is implementation(or release) goods to the market. This is a difficult period for the manufacturer, since its products are still unknown to the consumer who needs to be won over. At this stage, it becomes quite clear whether the buyer will accept the product or not. In the latter case, the life cycle may be short, which means that the sale of the product will not bring a profit sufficient to cover the costs of its creation. The result may be worsening financial situation the company or even its bankruptcy.

At the implementation stage, marketing activities are mainly related to adjusting the product to the target segment, i.e. changing its quality characteristics, which, as a rule, leads to additional investments in production. At the same time, serial production is still small; therefore, production costs are characterized high level. As a result, there is no profit, and sometimes losses are possible.

Sales are relatively low because advertising and sales efforts in both the consumer and industrial markets take time to influence demand. Sales are also hampered by the following circumstances:

• the sales staff still doesn’t know well new product, its advantages and features, therefore it is often presented to the buyer last; there is a need to train and interest trading organizations;
• trade representatives are reluctant to take risks associated with the sale of a new product;
• consumers, not knowing the new product, are in no hurry to purchase it and show restraint; Only innovators are in demand.

However, at this stage of the life cycle, the producer also has advantages: he, as a rule, is a monopolist, which means he has the opportunity to dictate his terms to the consumer. During a period when the manufacturer (seller) practically does not feel competition in the market, he can sell goods at prices that include monopoly profit.

At the second stage of life cycle, which is called growth stage, the product has already been tailored to the “targeted” buyer who believes in its advantages and appreciates its high competitiveness. At this stage of life cycle, the quality parameters of the product are in full compliance with national and international standards.

Demand for goods is growing at a very high rate, and therefore, it is advisable to expand production and increase production capacity utilization. As a result, production costs begin to decrease and, accordingly, the prerequisites are created for lowering prices as a means of stimulating sales.

At the same time, the company maintains its monopolist position. The few competitors that have emerged are most often limited to selling copy goods. In such conditions, the manufacturer reserves the opportunity to sell products at monopolistically high prices, making an ever-increasing profit.

During periods of growth, sales promotion becomes strategic. Preference is often given to advertising, which becomes aggressive, since the company does everything possible to convince the buyer of the advantage of its product, and not copies of a competitor.

With the help of marketing at this stage of life cycle, manufacturers strive to solve the following problems: to prevent intensification of competition through product differentiation; provide effective work distribution network for mass sales; organize an appropriate advertising campaign; obtain monopoly profits by implementing a policy of high prices.

The third stage of life cycle – maturity– characterized by complete mastery of the technology of production of goods, which allows the company to concentrate its efforts on the problems of increasing labor productivity, as well as reducing production costs. Due to the profit received, it becomes possible to expand the range.

At the same time, the company faces serious problems, in particular, the number of competitors is growing, and the supply of goods begins to exceed demand. Accordingly, difficulties arise with implementation. At the same time, the type of buyer is changing noticeably: purchases are mainly made by consumers with average incomes, and not by wealthy “innovators”. In the current situation, the manufacturer seeks not only to expand the number of buyers, but also to form a circle regular customers(adherents of the brand) through such marketing activities as providing various price discounts, credit sales, seasonal and holiday sales, etc. It should be noted that the effectiveness of advertising at this stage of life cycle is reduced, since the product is already well known in the market , therefore, high costs for it during this period are hardly advisable.

It is at the maturity stage that the manufacturer begins work on creating a new product or modifying a product. This is necessary in order not to lead the company to a situation where the old product is no longer in demand and, accordingly, does not bring profit, and the company cannot offer a new, competitive one. As a result, it loses its buyer, its market share and becomes bankrupt.

The fourth stage of life cycle – saturation– characterized by the most intense competition for the buyer, a significant excess of demand over supply, which is reflected in the dynamics of indicators characterizing the life cycle cycle, i.e., sales volume and, to an even greater extent, the gross profit decrease. Fierce price competition leads to the establishment of quite low prices, close to production costs, but even this does not revive demand. In the range of marketing activities at this stage of life cycle, special attention is paid to the so-called pseudo-modification of the product, i.e. a change that does not require significant costs appearance products and their packaging. Thus, the impression is created that new products are appearing that better satisfy customer needs.

During the saturation stage, marketing still places a strong emphasis on organization advertising campaigns. At the same time, advertising acquires a new emphasis: special attention is paid to the brand name, and not to the quality and price of the product itself.

Finally, the last, fifth stage of traditional life cycle is considered decline This period is characterized by such painful phenomena for the company as growth warehouse stocks, a sharp drop in profits or the appearance of losses. The increasing deterioration of the situation can be prevented by a good knowledge of the market infrastructure, as well as the use of established business connections with consumers and competitors.

The transition from stage to stage occurs without sharp jumps, so the marketing service must carefully monitor changes in the pace of sales and profits in order to grasp the boundaries of the stages. It is especially important to catch the stage of saturation and, even more so, the decline.

To correctly understand product policy, it is necessary to keep in mind that the buyer does not purchase a product, but the benefit that he will receive when purchasing it. No one buys gasoline as such at a gas station (the buyer does not see it, does not try it), but buys the means necessary to set the car in motion, and if others offer it, more effective means for this purpose, he can buy them. Thus, a product is purchased only when it contains a benefit for the buyer.

In development of the concept of the product life cycle in the USA, Boston Advisory Group Matrix. This matrix is ​​an important tool for conducting assortment analysis, assessing the market prospects of goods, developing an effective sales policy, and forming an optimal product portfolio for the company (Fig. 2.4).

Rice. 2.4. Boston Advisory Group Matrix

"Stars"– the most promising, developing type of product tends to increase its share in the company’s product portfolio and is at the growth stage. The expansion of production of this product is due to profits from its sales. “Stars” should be protected and developed.

“Cash cows” – a product at the maturity stage; sales growth is not significant; the product has the maximum share in the company's product portfolio. It is the main source of income (of the company). Proceeds from the sale of this product can be used to finance the production and development of other products. Cash cows require strict control of capital investment and transfer of surplus financial revenue under the control of senior management.

“Difficult children”(“Wild cats”, “Question marks”) – products that have a very low market share with a relatively high rate of sales growth. May be at the introduction stage or at the beginning of the growth stage, require material costs; It is difficult to determine their market prospects (they may become “stars” or “dogs”). Requires additional research and funding. “Difficult children” are subject to special study in order to establish their prospects for becoming “stars.”

“Dogs”- unsuccessful products. They have a relatively small market share (with a downward trend) and are characterized by a low rate of sales growth or no growth as such. Such a product has no prospects and must be withdrawn from the market. If possible, you should get rid of “dogs” unless there are compelling reasons for keeping them in the company’s assortment.

With a successful life cycle, products turn from “problem children” into “stars”, and subsequently into “cash cows”. If unsuccessful, “difficult children” turn into “dogs.”

The task of service research on transport is to determine the market needs for services for the transportation of goods and passengers, and the compliance of the services provided with customer requirements.

The study of transport services, on the one hand, shows the management of the enterprise what the consumer wants to have, what types of shipments and modes of transportation he values ​​most, and on the other hand, how to provide the clientele with new forms of transport services in order to ensure their implementation, what parameters to concentrate on attention to which of the cargo owners to target the services and advertising for them, what new opportunities the new transport service model opens up for the client.

Transportation research covers many activities and is closely interrelated with other elements of marketing. The management of the transport enterprise and its divisions, knowing the reaction of cargo owners to new and traditional transport services or simply perceiving changes in the needs of the clientele, must make necessary changes in the organization and provision of transportation. In some cases you will have to find a set additional services to improve the quality of transportation, expand the scope of application of types of services recognized by the clientele, and change the attitude towards the clientele’s requests. This must be done if the result is an increase in traffic volume and income. In other cases, you should try to find additional features attracting clientele's attention to new types of transport services.

Research of transport services is used in planning and organizing transportation. In all cases, we must strive to introduce new services where the client most expects and therefore is most likely to accept them. New types of transport services are implemented both autonomously and with the necessary improvement of the transportation process ( different types routing, changes in the formation plan and train schedule, passenger train layouts, etc.). It is quite possible that this cannot be avoided. The point is different. It is necessary to carry out all marketing activities in conjunction and adhere to a certain sequence of stages.

An unpleasant mistake may be the confidence of transport company specialists that their expensive project for introducing new services based on scientific and technological progress will be approved and widely used by the clientele. It may be necessary to prove (more than once, and more than one year) potential client the advantages of new types of transport services, drawing his attention to higher consumer and other properties.

Only when this circumstance is taken into account and transport company will begin to make appropriate adjustments to the organization of cargo delivery and to relationships with clients and possible intermediaries when non-traditional market relations and ways of informing the clientele are found, only then railway can count on the desired commercial and financial success.

Security questions

1. What stages does it consist of? marketing research market?

2. What is meant by a product of market novelty?

3. Describe goods and services for individual use.

4. Give characteristics of goods and services for industrial purposes.

5. What are the main strategic approaches to creating a product?

6. Provide and describe the technology for creating a product.

7. List the basic requirements that an idea accepted for development into a product must meet.

8. What is meant by the product life cycle and what are its stages?

9. Describe the main stages of the product life cycle.

10. List the goals that are set for the study of transport services.

Market research

A prerequisite for a market is the exchange of goods or services. In order for it to happen, the following conditions must be met.

1. There must be at least two parties entering into the exchange (seller and buyer).

2. Each party must have something that might interest the other.

3. Each party must be able to communicate and deliver their goods.

4. Each party must be free to accept or reject the other party's offer.

5. Each party must be convinced of the advisability or desirability of dealing with the other party.

Exchange in its development goes through three stages: self-sufficiency (lack of exchange); decentralized (barter); centralized (exchange through the market).

Since the key to defining a market is the exchange of goods and services between seller and buyer, this makes it possible to give a shorter definition.

A market is a sphere of exchange where a set of real and potential sellers and buyers operate. The place where a purchase and sale transaction takes place is also called a market.

There are markets: commodity (goods and services); financial (market securities); labor market. In addition, markets are divided into domestic (national) and international.

Commodity market Based on the nature and purpose of goods, they are divided into the market for goods for personal use and for industrial purposes.

Market of goods (services) for individual use is a market for goods or services in mass demand. In this market, goods and services are purchased for personal consumption, family and home use.

Market of goods (services) for industrial purposes is a collection of individuals and organizations that purchase goods and services for further use in production or resale to other consumers. It sells raw materials, supplies, equipment, instruments, devices, and components. In terms of the size of the product range and monetary turnover, the market for goods and services for industrial purposes exceeds the market for goods and services for individual use. Procurement here is carried out by professionals based on a thorough analysis of the technical, economic and social aspects of the use of goods and services.

Today almost anyone developed country characteristic of the world market economy, in which there is minimal or no government intervention. Prices for goods, their assortment, production and sales volumes - all this develops spontaneously as a result of the work of market mechanisms, the most important of which are law of supply and demand. Therefore, let’s look at least briefly at the basic concepts economic theory in this area: supply and demand, their elasticity, demand curve and supply curve, as well as their determining factors, market equilibrium.

Demand: concept, function, graph

Very often one hears (sees) that such concepts as demand and quantity of demand are confused, considering them synonyms. This is wrong - demand and its magnitude (volume) are completely different concepts! Let's look at them.

Demand (English "Demand") – the solvent need of buyers for a certain product at a certain price level for it.

Quantity of demand(quantity demanded) - the quantity of goods that buyers are willing and able to purchase at a given price.

So, demand is the need of buyers for a certain product, ensured by their solvency (that is, they have money to satisfy their need). And the quantity of demand is a specific quantity of goods that buyers want and can (they have the money to do so) buy.

Example: Dasha wants apples and she has money to buy them - this is demand. Dasha goes to the store and buys 3 apples, because she wants to buy exactly 3 apples and she has enough money for this purchase - this is the value (volume) of demand.

The following types of demand are distinguished:

• individual demand– an individual specific buyer;
• total (aggregate) demand– all buyers available on the market.

Demand, the relationship between its value and price (as well as other factors) can be expressed mathematically, in the form of a demand function and a demand curve (graphical interpretation).

Demand function– the law of dependence of the quantity of demand on various factors influencing him.

– a graphical expression of the dependence of the quantity of demand for a certain product on its price.

In the simplest case, the demand function represents the dependence of its value on one price factor:

P – price for this product.

The graphical expression of this function (demand curve) is a straight line with a negative slope. This demand curve is described by the usual linear equation:

where: Q D - the amount of demand for this product;
P – price for this product;
a – coefficient specifying the offset of the beginning of the line along the abscissa axis (X);
b – coefficient specifying the angle of inclination of the line (negative number).

A linear demand graph expresses the inverse relationship between the price of a product (P) and the quantity of purchases of that product (Q)

But, in reality, of course, everything is much more complicated and the amount of demand is influenced not only by price, but also by many non-price factors. In this case, the demand function takes the following form:

where: Q D - the amount of demand for this product;
P X – price for this product;
P – price of other related goods (substitutes, complements);
I – income of buyers;
E – buyer expectations regarding future price increases;
N – the number of possible buyers in a given region;
T – tastes and preferences of buyers (habits, following fashion, traditions, etc.);
and other factors.

Graphically, such a demand curve can be represented as an arc, but this is again a simplification - in reality, the demand curve can have any most bizarre shape.

In reality, demand depends on many factors and the dependence of its value on price is nonlinear.

Thus, factors influencing demand:
1. Price factor of demand– the price of this product;
2. Non-price factors of demand:

• the presence of interrelated goods (substitutes, complements);
• level of income of buyers (their solvency);
• number of buyers in a given region;
• tastes and preferences of customers;
• customer expectations (regarding price increases, future needs, etc.);
• other factors.

Law of Demand

To understand market mechanisms, it is very important to know the basic laws of the market, which include the law of supply and demand.

Law of Demand– when the price of a product rises, the demand for it decreases, with other factors remaining constant, and vice versa.

Mathematically, the law of demand means that there is an inverse relationship between the quantity demanded and the price.

From a layman’s point of view, the law of demand is completely logical - the lower the price of a product, the more attractive it is to purchase and the greater the number of units of the product will be purchased. But, oddly enough, there are paradoxical situations in which the law of demand fails and acts in reverse side. This is reflected in the fact that the quantity demanded increases as the price increases! Examples are the Veblen effect or Giffen goods.

The law of demand has theoretical basis. It is based on the following mechanisms:
1. Income effect- the buyer’s desire to purchase more of a given product when its price decreases, without reducing the volume of consumption of other goods.
2. Substitution effect– the willingness of the buyer, when the price of a given product decreases, to give preference to it, refusing other more expensive goods.
3. Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility– as this product is consumed, each additional unit of it will bring less and less satisfaction (the product “gets boring”). Therefore, the consumer will be willing to continue to buy this product only if its price decreases.

Thus, a change in price (price factor) leads to change in demand. Graphically, this is expressed as movement along the demand curve.

Change in the quantity of demand on the graph: moving along the demand line from D to D1 - an increase in the volume of demand; from D to D2 - decrease in demand volume

The impact of other (non-price) factors leads to a shift in the demand curve – changes in demand. When demand increases, the graph shifts to the right and up; when demand decreases, it shifts to the left and down. Growth is called - expansion of demand, decrease – contraction of demand.

Change in demand on the graph: shift of the demand line from D to D1 - narrowing of demand; from D to D2 - expansion of demand

Elasticity of demand

When the price of a product rises, the quantity demanded for it decreases. When the price decreases, it increases. But this happens in different ways: in some cases, a slight fluctuation in the price level can cause a sharp increase (decrease) in demand, in others, a change in price within a very wide range will have virtually no effect on demand. The degree of such dependence, sensitivity of the quantity demanded to changes in price or other factors is called elasticity of demand.

Elasticity of demand– the degree to which the quantity demanded changes when price (or another factor) changes in response to a change in price or other factor.

A numerical indicator reflecting the degree of such change - demand elasticity coefficient.

Respectively, price elasticity of demand shows how much the quantity demanded will change if the price changes by 1%.

Arc price elasticity of demand– used when you need to calculate the approximate elasticity of demand between two points on an arc demand curve. The more convex the demand arc, the higher the error in determining elasticity.

where: E P D - price elasticity of demand;
P 1 – initial price for the product;
Q 1 – the initial value of demand for the product;
P 2 – new price;
Q 2 – new quantity of demand;
ΔP – price increment;
ΔQ – increment in demand;
P avg. – average prices;
Q avg. – average value demand.

Point price elasticity of demand– is used when the demand function is specified and there are values ​​of the initial quantity of demand and the price level. Characterizes the relative change in the quantity demanded with an infinitesimal change in price.

where: dQ – differential of demand;
dP – price differential;
P 1, Q 1 – the value of price and quantity of demand at the analyzed point.

The elasticity of demand can be calculated not only by price, but, for example, by the income of buyers, as well as by other factors. There is also cross elasticity of demand. But we will not consider this topic so deeply here; a separate article will be devoted to it.

Depending on the absolute value of the elasticity coefficient, the following types of demand are distinguished ( types of elasticity of demand):

• Perfectly inelastic demand or absolute inelasticity (|E| = 0). When the price changes, the quantity demanded remains virtually unchanged. Close examples include essential goods (bread, salt, medicine). But in reality there are no goods with completely inelastic demand for them;
• Inelastic demand (0 < |E| < 1). Величина спроса меняется в меньшей степени, чем цена. Примеры: товары повседневного спроса; товары, не имеющие аналогов.
• Demand with unit elasticity or unit elasticity (|E| = -1). Changes in price and quantity demanded are completely proportional. The quantity demanded grows (falls) at exactly the same rate as the price.
• Elastic demand (1 < |E| < ∞). Величина спроса изменяется в большей степени, чем цена. Примеры: товары, имеющие аналоги; предметы роскоши.
• Perfectly elastic demand or absolute elasticity (|E| = ∞). A slight change in price immediately increases (decreases) the quantity demanded by an unlimited amount. In reality, there is no product with absolute elasticity. A more or less close example: liquid financial instruments traded on an exchange (for example, currency pairs on Forex), when a small price fluctuation can cause a sharp increase or decrease in demand.

Sentence: concept, function, graph

Now let's talk about another market phenomenon, without which demand is impossible, its inseparable companion and opposing force - supply. Here we should also distinguish between the offer itself and its size (volume).

Offer (English "Supply") - the ability and willingness of sellers to sell goods at a given price.

Supply quantity(volume supplied) - the quantity of goods that sellers are willing and able to sell at a given price.

The following are distinguished: types of offer:

• individual offer– a specific individual seller;
• general (aggregate) supply– all sellers present on the market.

Suggestion function– the law of dependence of the quantity of supply on various factors influencing it.

– a graphical expression of the dependence of the quantity of supply for a certain product on its price.

In simplified terms, the supply function represents the dependence of its value on price (price factor):

P – price for this product.

The supply curve in this case is a straight line with a positive slope. The following linear equation describes this supply curve:

where: Q S - the amount of supply for this product;
P – price for this product;
c – coefficient specifying the offset of the beginning of the line along the abscissa axis (X);
d – coefficient specifying the angle of inclination of the line.

A linear supply graph expresses a direct relationship between the price of a good (P) and the quantity of purchases of that good (Q)

The supply function, in its more complex form taking into account the influence of non-price factors, is presented below:

where Q S is the quantity of supply;
P X – price of this product;
P 1 ...P n – prices of other interrelated goods (substitutes, complements);
R – availability and nature of production resources;
K – technologies used;
C – taxes and subsidies;
X – natural and climatic conditions;
and other factors.

In this case, the supply curve will have the shape of an arc (although this is again a simplification).

IN real conditions supply depends on many factors and the dependence of supply volume on price is non-linear

Thus, factors influencing supply:
1. Price factor– the price of this product;
2. Non-price factors:

• availability of complementary and substitute products;
• level of technology development;
• quantity and availability of necessary resources;
• natural conditions;
• expectations of sellers (manufacturers): social, political, inflation;
• taxes and subsidies;
• type of market and its capacity;
• other factors.

Law of supply

Law of supply– when the price of a product rises, the supply for it increases, with other factors remaining constant, and vice versa.

Mathematically, the law of supply means that there is a direct relationship between the quantity supplied and the price.

The law of supply, like the law of demand, is very logical. Naturally, any seller (manufacturer) strives to sell their goods at a higher price. If the price level on the market increases, it is profitable for sellers to sell more; if it decreases, it is not.

A change in the price of a product leads to change in supply. This is shown on the graph by movement along the supply curve.

Change in supply quantity on the graph: movement along the supply line from S to S1 - increase in supply volume; from S to S2 - decrease in supply volume

Changes in non-price factors lead to a shift in the supply curve ( changing the proposal itself). Expansion of offer– shift of the supply curve to the right and down. Narrowing the offer– shift left and up.

Change in supply on the graph: shift of the supply line from S to S1 - narrowing of supply; from S to S2 - sentence extension

Elasticity of supply

Supply, like demand, may vary to varying degrees depending on changes in price and other factors. In this case, we talk about the elasticity of supply.

Elasticity of supply- the degree of change in the quantity of supply (the quantity of goods offered) in response to a change in price or other factor.

A numerical indicator reflecting the degree of such change - supply elasticity coefficient.

Respectively, price elasticity of supply shows how much the quantity supplied will change if the price changes by 1%.

The formulas for calculating the arc and point price elasticity of supply (Eps) are completely similar to the formulas for demand.

Types of elasticity of supply by price:

• perfectly inelastic supply(|E|=0). A change in price does not affect the quantity supplied at all. This is possible in the short term;
• inelastic supply (0 < |E| < 1). Величина предложения изменяется в меньшей степени, чем цена. Присуще short term;
• unit elastic supply(|E| = 1);
• elastic supply (1 < |E| < ∞). Величина предложения изменяется в большей степени, чем соответствующее изменение цены. Характерно для long term;
• absolutely elastic supply(|E| = ∞). The quantity supplied varies indefinitely with an insignificantly small change in price. Also typical for the long term.

What is noteworthy is that situations with completely elastic and completely inelastic supply are quite real (unlike similar types of elasticity of demand) and occur in practice.

Demand and supply “meeting” in the market interact with each other. When free market relations without hard government regulation they will sooner or later balance each other (a French economist of the 18th century spoke about this). This state is called market equilibrium.

– a market situation in which demand is equal to supply.

Graphically, market equilibrium is expressed market equilibrium point– the point of intersection of the demand curve and the supply curve.

If supply and demand do not change, the market equilibrium point tends to remain unchanged.

The price corresponding to the market equilibrium point is called equilibrium price, quantity of goods – equilibrium volume.

Market equilibrium is graphically expressed by the intersection of the demand (D) and supply (S) schedules at one point. This point of market equilibrium corresponds to: P E - equilibrium price, and Q E - equilibrium volume.

There are different theories and approaches explaining exactly how market equilibrium is established. The most famous are the approach of L. Walras and A. Marshall. But this, as well as the cobweb-like model of equilibrium, a seller’s market and a buyer’s market, is a topic for a separate article.

If very short and simplified, then the market equilibrium mechanism can be explained as follows. At the equilibrium point, everyone (both buyers and sellers) is happy. If one of the parties gains an advantage (the market deviates from the equilibrium point in one direction or another), the other party will be unhappy and the first party will have to make concessions.

For example: price above equilibrium. It is profitable for sellers to sell goods at a higher price and supply increases, creating an excess of goods. And buyers will be unhappy with the increase in the price of the product. In addition, competition is high, supply is excessive and sellers, in order to sell the product, will have to reduce the price until it reaches an equilibrium value. At the same time, the volume of supply will also decrease to the equilibrium volume.

Or another example: the volume of goods offered on the market is less than the equilibrium volume. That is, there is a shortage of goods on the market. In such conditions, buyers are willing to pay a higher price for a product than the one at which it is currently being sold. This will encourage sellers to increase supply while simultaneously raising prices. As a result, the price and volume of supply/demand will reach an equilibrium value.

In essence, this was an illustration of the theories of market equilibrium of Walras and Marshall, but as already mentioned, we will consider them in more detail in another article.

Galyautdinov R.R.

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Types of Marketing

N a modern market highlight various conceptual approaches and corresponding types of marketing. So, in marketing there are:

In addition to the functional one, the industry structure of marketing is distinguished: industrial (focused on corporate clients) and consumer (focused on the end consumer) marketing, industrial marketing and marketing food products, trade marketing(ideology: relationship to the intermediary as a client, consumer), retail marketing, agricultural marketing, intellectual product marketing, services marketing, etc.

Concept and types of demand

A person needs to purchase various goods and services to satisfy his needs. Every person in the market for goods and services is a buyer. The totality of these buyers forms the DEMAND for goods and services. Consequently, ever-increasing needs create demand. But desire alone is not enough to satisfy needs. This desire must be supported by solvency. In economic theory, there is a generally accepted definition of demand.

Demand- the solvent need of consumers for various goods and services, the amount of goods and services that consumers want and can buy at a given price at a given time.

Consumer demand is a complex phenomenon consisting of various elements that have certain economic, social, demographic and regional characteristics. This makes it possible to differentiate demand according to a number of characteristics, which facilitates its regulation.

Classifying demand according to market conditions helps the marketing company assess demand in order to develop a specific market strategy. It is equally important for marketing to classify demand according to other criteria that allow us to identify patterns in the formation and development of demand and take them into account when developing a market marketing strategy. Thus, the classification of demand by trends is directly related to the stages of the product life cycle, and identifying differences in demand by socio-demographic groups of consumers is crucial for segmenting the market and determining its capacity.

Classification of demand by purchasing intentions opens up wide possibilities for the seller’s directed influence on the buyer both by advertising methods and by methods of direct influence. A certain part of buyers (according to some estimates, about a quarter) succumbs to psychological pressure and actively reacts to store displays of goods. This implies the need for optimal placement of goods in the store, ensuring the availability of goods for inspection and testing, originality and colorfulness of the exhibition, and its informativeness (merchandising).

The sign of differentiation of demand by place of purchase is of interest to firms engaged in regional marketing. To a certain extent, mobile demand is recreational, related to tourism and resort trips. Identifying such demand is very important for companies specializing in serving tourists and holidaymakers. It is necessary to know not only the size of recreational mobile demand, but also its geography and routes. In addition, information about the territorial differentiation of demand is necessary for regional and municipal authorities in order to control consumer market and develop your own product policy.

Analysis of demand by degree of satisfaction will allow the company to adjust its assortment and service policy, and find additional reserves for growth in sales and sales.

In order to control and forecast demand, types of demand are also distinguished according to the time of formation and presentation on the market. Past demand is demand realized or unsatisfied over some past period of time; its assessment is necessary to identify trends and patterns, as well as to implement implementation plans. Current demand - demand at the moment, knowledge of the size of which allows you to quickly make adjustments to planned marketing activities, is an element of market conditions. Future demand is the demand for the next period; it is necessary to predict its volume and structure, taking into account production and market capabilities.

Classification of demand according to these criteria orients marketing toward the application of a certain product and pricing policy, the selection of an appropriate competitive strategy, and the organization of targeted promotional events, allows for multi-parameter market segmentation and requires the company to carry out the necessary differentiated actions to regulate demand.

The following types of demand are distinguished:

• 1. Negative - buyers avoid purchasing this product, they are not interested and indifferent to it.
• 2. Hidden - a need may exist, but it cannot be satisfied in the market for goods and services.
• 3. Falling - a decrease in demand for one or more goods produced by the enterprise.
• 4. Irregular - seasonal demand.
• 5. Full - the level of demand that fully satisfies the enterprise.
• 6. Excessive - the level of demand exceeds the quantity of goods supplied.
• 7. Irrational - demand for goods harmful to health.

Demand is influenced by several factors (non-price): consumer tastes and preferences, the number of buyers in the market, the prices of substitute goods, the income level of buyers, consumer expectations regarding future prices, income and availability of goods.

The price of a product and the quantity demanded for this product are inversely proportional. This feedback economists call it the law of demand. That is, when the price of a product decreases, the volume of demand for this product increases, all other things being equal. This relationship can be reflected graphically using a demand curve, which is downward sloping. But the exception here is the demand for rough diamonds; the relationship between their price and the volume of demand is direct. Non-price factors cause a shift in the demand curve.

Product producers take people's needs into account and produce goods and services that are sold in the market. The set of commodity producers provides people with satisfaction of their effective demand, that is, it forms SUPPLY. Supply is the willingness and ability of producers to provide goods for sale in the market. The ability to provide goods involves the use of limited resources, which are not always sufficient to satisfy the needs of all people.

Thus, offer- the quantity of goods and services that the seller can and wants to sell at a given price at a given time. Changes in supply can be caused by the following factors (non-price):

• · prices for resources,
• · used for production of goods,
• · efficiency used in production technology,
• taxes and subsidies, prices for other goods,
• · expectations of price changes of this product,
• · the number of sellers of this product on the market.

In general, a change in the price of a good leads to a change in the quantity supplied of that good. This relationship is reflected graphically in the form of a supply curve, which is ascending. A shift in the supply curve is caused by non-price supply factors.

Thus, on the market, on the one hand, there are Producers on the supply side and Consumers on the demand side. Therefore, the market is a real or imaginary place where people meet and make a deal, i.e. buy and sell. In the market there is a meeting between Producer and Consumer, Supply and Demand, as a result of which the purchase and sale of goods takes place. Well-known American economists K. McConnell and S. Brew define the market as follows: " Market“It is a mechanism that brings together sellers and buyers of individual goods and services.”

Graphically, the intersection of the demand and supply curves determines the equilibrium state of the market: the equilibrium price of a product and the equilibrium volume of this product. The intersection point of these graphs shows that the needs of buyers for a given product correspond to the quantity of this product that manufacturers are able to offer to the market. A change in either demand or supply causes a change equilibrium price and the equilibrium amount of product.

Topic 13.1. Concept and classification of demand The level of demand is one of the main characteristics of the market.
For marketing, demand is the main object of constant observation, detailed study and influence.Topic 1 3.1. Concept and classification of demandDemand - a need presented in the market and supported by money. In this regard, we cannot talk about effective demand, since any demand, by definition, is effective, otherwise it is a need. Demand can also be defined as the desire and ability of the consumer to buy a product at a certain time and in a certain place. Not every desire to have a product is a demand. Only that desire turns into demand, which is supported by the financial capabilities of the buyer. We can say that it is not the need itself that is presented to the market, but its solvent representative – consumer demand. Customer demand – a complex phenomenon consisting of various elements that have certain economic, social, demographic and regional characteristics. This makes it possible to differentiate demand according to a number of characteristics, which facilitates its regulation. Classification of demand.1. By the number of objects of demand:· macro demand – the demand of the entire population for a product group or set of goods;
micro-demand – the target market’s demand for separate product or its assortment variety; 2. According to market conditions:· negative,
· absent,
· hidden,
· excessive,
· full-fledged. Classifying demand according to market conditions helps the marketing company assess demand in order to develop a specific market strategy. 3. By form of education:· potential (closed),
· emerging,
· established,
· irregular: seasonal, recreational, daily, hourly,
deferred (accumulated),
· panic (excitement). 4. By trends:· growing (intensive),
Stabilized
· fading (declining, decline in demand). Classification of demand by trends is directly related to the stages of the product life cycle. 5. By purchasing intentions:· solidly formulated (hard),
· alternative (soft, compromise),
· spontaneous (impulsive). Classification of demand by purchasing intentions opens up wide possibilities for the seller’s directed influence on the buyer both by advertising methods and by methods of direct influence. A certain part of buyers (according to some estimates, about a quarter) succumbs to psychological pressure and actively reacts to store displays of goods. This implies the need for optimal placement of goods in the store, ensuring the availability of goods for inspection and testing, originality and colorfulness of the exposition, and its informativeness (merchandising). 6. By socio-demographic groups of consumers: demand of individuals (families),
· demand of gender and age groups of the population. Identifying differences in demand across socio-demographic groups of consumers is crucial for segmenting the market and determining its capacity. 7. At the place of purchase:· global,
· regional,
· urban,
· rural,
· basic,
· mobile. The sign of differentiation of demand by place of purchase is of interest to firms engaged in regional marketing. To a certain extent, mobile demand is recreational, related to tourism and resort trips. Identifying such demand is very important for companies specializing in serving tourists and holidaymakers. It is necessary to know not only the size of recreational mobile demand, but also its geography and routes. In addition, information about the territorial differentiation of demand is necessary for regional and municipal authorities in order to control the consumer market and develop their product policies. 8. By degree of satisfaction:· satisfied,
Conditionally satisfied
· dissatisfied. Analysis of demand by degree of satisfaction will allow the company to adjust its assortment and service policy, and find additional reserves for growth in sales and sales. 9. By time of formation and presentation on the market:· past,
· real,
· future. In order to control and forecast demand, types of demand are also distinguished according to the time of formation and presentation on the market. Past demand - this is demand realized or unsatisfied over a certain period of time; its assessment is necessary to identify trends and patterns, as well as to implement implementation plans. Current demand – demand at the moment, knowledge of the size of which allows you to quickly make adjustments to planned marketing activities, is an element of market conditions. Future demand – demand for the next period, it is necessary to predict its volume and structure, taking into account production and market capabilities. Classification of demand according to these characteristics guides marketing towards the application of a certain product and pricing policy, the selection of an appropriate competitive strategy, the organization of targeted advertising events, allows for multi-parameter market segmentation and requires the company to carry out the necessary differentiated actions to regulate demand.