Theories of leadership based on. Basic theories of leadership: the theory of "great people", behavioral theories, situational theories

In modern political science, there are several theories of leadership.

Damn theory. Its essence is in explaining the phenomenon of leadership by outstanding:

Personal qualities. Among the traits inherent in a leader are usually called a sharp mind, the ability to attract attention, tact, a sense of humor,

Outstanding organizational skills, ability to please people

Willingness to take responsibility, competence and much more, including photogenicity and visual appeal.

situational theory. Leadership is seen as a function of the situation. It is the prevailing specific circumstances that determine the selection of the leader, as well as his behavior and the decisions he makes. The essence of a leader lies not in the individual, but in the role that a certain group needs.

The theory of the determining role of followers, (constituents). A leader is a person who meets the expectations and demands of his followers. In such cases, the leader becomes the person who most successfully focuses on others. It is the group itself that chooses a leader corresponding to its interests and orientation. The secret of a leader is not in himself, but in the psychology and demands of his followers. They turn the leader into a mob puppet, and the leader seeks to please the mob in order to maintain power.

3. Functions and types of political leader

Integrative– unification and coordination of various groups and interests on the basis of basic values ​​and ideals recognized by society.

Orientation- developing a policy that reflects the trends of progress and the needs of population groups.

instrumental- determination of methods and methods for the implementation of the tasks set for society.

Mobilization– initiation necessary changes through the creation of developed incentives for the population.

Communicative- maintaining relations between the authorities and the masses in order to prevent the alienation of citizens from power.

In psychology, accepted various classifications leaders:

by the nature of the activity (universal leader and situational leader);

by direction of activity (emotional leader and business leader), etc.

The leader may or may not be the leader of the group at the same time.

Distinguish:

formal leadership - the process of influencing people from the position of their position;

informal leadership is the process of influencing people with the help of one's abilities, skills or other resources.

The functions performed by political leaders are largely determined by the goals they set and the situation, the environment (economic and political) in which they have to act. The situation, as a rule, is a crisis, and the goal is a program of action and its implementation.

Each political leader has specific character traits, methods of interaction with followers and voters, ways to achieve goals, etc. Based on different criteria, different types of political leaders.

M. Harmann, according to the type of political image, distinguishes the following types of political leader: "standard-bearer", "servant", "merchant" and "fireman".

Leaders - "flag bearers"- these are great people who have their own vision of reality, their own view of current events and ways of their development.

Leader - Servant » - acts as a spokesman for the interests of its adherents, voters, acts on their behalf. In practice, these leaders tend to be populist; not infrequently they prefer to say what voters expect and hope to hear from them.

Leader "merchant"- is likened to a seller of goods, seeking to convince the buyer to buy it. This type of leader must have the ability to convince people who "buy" his ideas or plans to get involved in their implementation.

Leader - "fireman"- “extinguishes the fire”, that is, it quickly reacts to the problems that arise before society, responds to the events and problems generated by situations and acts accordingly.

In practice, most political leaders combine all four types of leadership in a different order and sequence, that is, they try not to abuse any one of them.

By style political leadership distinguish authoritarian-one-man guiding influence, based on the threat of the use of force, and democratic - involving members of the group in the management of activities.

The most common typology of political leadership in the West was developed by Max Weber(1864–1920). He identified three main types of leadership, while emphasizing that in reality pure types are rarely found.

Traditional Leadership- the right to leadership is determined by belonging to the Ruling Elite, belief in the holiness and immutability of traditions (The leader becomes by virtue of tradition, for example, when the son of a tribal leader, a monarch inherits his father's post after his death)

Rational legal leadership- the power of the leader is limited by law; both the leaders and the masses obey the law. Established laws are changed only by procedures established by law

Charismatic Leadership- based on the belief in the exceptional abilities of the leader, who has charisma (from Greek - divine gift, grace). The charismatic leader believes that he is on a historical "mission" and therefore demands unconditional obedience and support. He must constantly prove to the masses his exclusivity by performing extraordinary feats.

M. Weber considered the phenomenon of a charismatic leader to be the most interesting. “Devotion to the charisma of a prophet or a leader in a war, or an outstanding demagogue” in a national assembly, or in parliament just means, wrote M. Weber, that a person of this type is considered internally “called” by the leader of people, that the latter obey him not by force of custom or establishment, but because they believe in it” (M. Weber Selected Works M., 1990 - p. 646).

The charismatic personality exercised power in various political systems: J. Caesar in the Roman Empire Napoleon - in France, Hitler - in Germany, Mussolini - in Italy, Lenin - in Russia. Mao - in China, etc.

The historical experience of mankind testifies that even outstanding political leaders could not "create" history according to their own arbitrariness. Churchill and Hitler, Lenin and Stalin and many others - they were all talented political leaders in their own way, possessed individual qualities, but their plans came into conflict with social development.

However, one should not underestimate the role of a political leader: he can have a significant impact on the course of social development. In each specific situation personal activity is manifested, and even the subjectivity of decisions, that is, the leader's behavior can be relatively independent. The role of a political leader is especially great in critical periods of development, when quick decision-making and the ability to correctly identify specific tasks are required.

There is an opinion that a leader can solve all problems. In fact, a cruel, demanding leader can greatly activate the activities of the masses. But the main task of the leader is to cause activity, eliminate passivity, involve all members of society in managing it.

On the present stage highlight the following trends in modern leadership:

distanced attitude to the masses (communication is carried out through the team);

in many ways, the political leader is a symbolic figure, his image is made by the team;

the leader's actions become predictable, he acts within certain limits and prescriptions;

the image of a leader is made by the media. A political leader is formed in political struggle. For many decades in our country there was no great demand for political leaders. Therefore, political "handicraftsmen" with a low level of political culture often find themselves in the role of a political leader. And this all the more requires a careful analysis of reality and the study of existing experience.

conclusions

So, the problems of political leadership in political science are of great theoretical and applied importance. The activities of a political leader can largely contribute to, or vice versa, hinder social development. Therefore, for the selection of leaders, there are various psychometric and sociometric tests and methods that are successfully used in practice in civilized countries.

Deviant behavior as a phenomenon of public life

The concept, forms and types of deviant behavior

In any society there are social norms, that is, the rules by which this society lives. Deviating from norms is as natural as following them. At all times, mankind has struggled with all forms and types of deviant behavior, because sharp deviations from the norm, both in positive and in negative side, threatened to violate the stability of society, and stability is always valued above all.

In order to find out the causes of deviant behavior, you need to at least find out what deviant behavior actually is. There are two different definitions:

1) An act, actions of a person that do not correspond to officially established or actually established norms in a given society. In this definition, deviant behavior is predominantly the subject of psychology, pedagogy, and psychiatry.

2) A social phenomenon expressed in mass forms of human activity that do not correspond to socially established or actually established norms in a given society. In this sense, deviant behavior is the subject of sociology, social psychology.

Deviant behavior acquired in last years mass character due to the dynamism of social processes, crisis situations in many areas of public life, the growth of social vulnerability of citizens. Therefore, it has become the object of attention of many sociologists, social psychologists, doctors, and law enforcement officials. Consequently, the demand for Scientific research deviations, their forms, structure, dynamics of relationships, as well as an explanation of the causes, conditions and factors contributing to their occurrence.

Deviant behavior has its own stages of gradual development, which the individual himself does not notice, but the psychologist observing him will always notice. Knowing the sequence of these stages, you can prevent each of them. Deviation begins with the inability to achieve the goal. This tension can manifest itself as aggression, anger directed at others or at oneself. If a person does not get out of this state for a long time, then a neurosis is formed - a disease that occurs as a result of a collision of a person's desires and sad reality. Then attempts are made to achieve their goal in other, deviant ways. In this situation, several stages are distinguished: formation, formation, development and resolution of the conflict, post-conflict development. If in the course of resolving the conflict the goals are achieved, then the deviation stops. If not, then it continues in the forms of crime and illegal actions.

The first question that should be answered when examining deviant behavior is the question of the concept of "norm". After all, if we do not know what the norm is, we will never know what the deviation from it is. By definition, a social norm is a necessary and stable element of social practice that acts as an instrument of social regulation and control. The social norm determines the limit, measure, interval of permissible behavior of the activities of people, social groups, historically established in a particular society. social organizations. The social norm is embodied in laws, traditions, customs, that is, in everything that has become a habit, entered into everyday life, into the lifestyle of the majority of the population, is supported by public opinion, plays the role of a “natural regulator” of social and interpersonal relations. Most big problems associated with norms arise in a reformed society, where some norms are destroyed and others are not created, the old worldview has disappeared and a new one has not appeared.

When studying deviations in behavior, it is important to remember that they can be both positive and negative, and, accordingly, have different meanings for society. Positive ones are social creativity, self-sacrifice, super-hard work, the highest devotion, an outstanding scientific discovery, invention. Such deviations develop people, help to overcome conservative standards of behavior. A person who has the status of a leader in society, the chosen one of the people, a hero, a genius is an example of a positive deviation, an approved deviation. At the same time, the accents of social support are always changing. If, for example, there is a need to protect the country, then military commanders come first, at other times - political leaders, cultural figures or scientists.

But it should be noted that the norms and deviations historically change and depend on the prevailing at the moment and in this society. social norms. Deviation in other historical conditions or in another country may become the norm, for example, when changing the social system. In 1919, the consumption of alcohol was banned in the United States, and in 1933 bars were opened. In Russia in 1933 abortion was banned, and in 1955 it was again allowed. Incest is prohibited in most countries, but is permitted in some. Most countries now have monogamous marriages, and some polygamous. A wandering monk in one country is considered a saint, and in another just an idler.

A person who follows deviant behavior is called a deviant. But there is also such a thing as an asocial personality, this is an irresponsible person who does not feel guilty of anything, blames other people for everything, does everything out of spite and in order to cause harm, conflicts with others, shows intolerance and does not learn from his mistakes . His behavior speaks of insufficient socialization of the individual. Such people are alienated from the family, educational institution, public organizations and move into the so-called risk groups or asocial groups.

Deviant behavior has many kinds, types and forms. In order not to get confused in them, they came up with special classifications. But there were too many classifications, so we present the simplest and most understandable:

1) By the type of violations of the norm (law, morality, etiquette).

2) By purpose and motive (selfish, aggressive).

3) By subject (individuals, groups, social organizations).

4) By age (children, people in adulthood, the elderly).

Our ultimate goal is to study the causes of deviant behavior. But it is impossible to name just a few reasons for such a large number of types of deviant behavior, because for each species and for each form they are different. Therefore, to begin with, we briefly characterize the types and forms of deviant behavior. So the types:

1) Violence - application by the subject various forms coercion against other subjects with the aim of acquiring or maintaining economic and political dominance, gaining rights and privileges, achieving other goals. Violence is one of the forms of aggression - behavior, the purpose of which is to cause damage, harm, in an effort to humiliate, destroy, force someone to do something. The willingness of the subject to aggressive behavior is called aggressiveness.

Types of aggression (classification number 1):

a) Reactive - anger, hatred, hostility.

b) Instrumental - purposeful and pre-planned.

Types of aggression (classification number 2):

a) Physical violence - physical injury.

b) Mental violence - mental impact, leading to breakdowns and other negative consequences.

c) Sexual abuse - involvement in sexual activities.

Types of aggression (classification number 3):

a) Sadism - violence directed at someone, the desire for cruelty, enjoyment of other people's suffering.

b) Masochism - violence directed at oneself, self-flagellation, self-infliction of suffering.

2) Drug addiction is a mental and sometimes physical condition resulting from the interaction between a living organism and a drug, characterized by behavioral characteristics and other reactions that always include the need for constant or periodically renewed use of this drug in order to experience its mental effect or avoid the discomfort associated with its absence.

3) Substance abuse - a disease caused by the consumption of toxic substances, that is, the use of tranquilizer tablets, caffeine obtained from strong tea - chifir, inhalation of aromatic substances of household appliances.

4) Drunkenness - excessive use of alcohol, which, along with a threat to the health of the individual, violates its social adaptation. Alcoholism is characterized by a pathological craving for alcohol, accompanied by social and moral degradation of the individual. Alcohol dependence develops gradually and is determined by complex changes that occur in the body of a drinking person and become irreversible: alcohol becomes necessary to maintain metabolic processes.

Types of alcoholism:

a) Household - a person is still able to control the amount of alcohol.

b) Chronic - a person cannot help drinking alcohol.

5) Prostitution - the practice of sexual relations outside of marriage, carried out for remuneration in one form or another, which serves as the main or significant additional source of funds for the chosen way of life.

Signs of prostitution:

a) Occupation - satisfying the sexual needs of clients.

b) The nature of the occupation - systematic sexual relations with different persons without sensual attraction and aimed at satisfying the client's sexual passion in any form.

c) The motive for employment is a pre-agreed reward in the form of money or material values, which are the main or additional sources of livelihood.

Types of prostitution:

a) Male

b) Women's

c) Children's

6) Suicide is the intentional taking of one's own life.

Types of suicide (classification number 1):

a) Completed suicide.

b) Suicidal attempts.

c) intentions.

Types of suicide (classification number 2):

a) individual.

b) Bulk.

7) Offense - legal factors that are contrary to the rule of law and violate the established order in the country.

Types of offenses:

a) Crime - a socially dangerous act, provided for by criminal law, guilty of a sane person who has reached the age of criminal responsibility. For example, murder, rape, theft.

b) A misdemeanor is an unlawful and guilty act that does not pose a great public danger and is regulated by the norms of various branches of law. For example, a defiant demeanor, foul language, drunkenness, vagrancy.

Forms of deviant behavior:

1) Deviation in the sphere of morality - a violation of the moral norm in terms of dignity, honor, duty, responsibility. A moral norm is a model of a person's actions, his certain ideal traits. In various historical conditions, the concept of a moral norm is different. During the entire historical development the following moral principles: love for the motherland, fatherland, one's people; intolerance to national and racial hostility; conscientious work; humane relations and mutual respect between people; mutual understanding in the family; honesty and truthfulness; moral purity, simplicity and modesty.

a) begging.

b) Use of state property.

c) Prostitution.

d) gambling.

3) Bureaucracy - anomalies in the activities of the administrative apparatus, expressed in various abuses committed by officials.

Types of bureaucracy:

a) Office work.

b) red tape.

c) Disregard for the merits of the case for the sake of formality.

d) Unsatisfactory organization of the case.

e) Adherence to old methods of management.

Distinguishing the forms and types of deviant behavior, it must be borne in mind that there are no pure types, almost all deviants have several varieties at once. For example, prostitution and crime are almost always combined with alcoholism and drug addiction.

All of the above gives an approximate idea of ​​deviant behavior, which in the future will help to reveal its causes and study the social conditions of occurrence.

Until now, there is no clear concept of what leadership is. Foreign defines it as a phenomenon of group interaction, manifested in the ability of some individuals to influence the feelings, thoughts and behavior of others in the desired direction, based on In order to explain this phenomenon emerged leadership theory. There are several approaches to studying this concept. This is due to the fact that all theories have their shortcomings.

Basic Leadership Theories:

Charismatic

It is also called trait theory. It was put forward in the USA in the 30s by E. Bogdarus. The bottom line is that characters are innate. Only a person with a certain set of traits can be a leader. Many authors have tried to isolate them. So, K. Brad in 1940 compiled a list of 79 traits of a leader. They included: intelligence, confidence, friendliness, enthusiasm, sense of humor and others. However, they did not occupy a stable position in the lists of other authors, and the task of highlighting the qualities and traits of a leader turned out to be insoluble. In addition, the distinguished qualities, in addition to being wide, are also often contradictory. It was found that in practice there are people in the group who, in their abilities and intelligence, are superior to the leader, but they are not.

situational

It replaced the charismatic theory of leadership. A person becomes a leader due to the emergence of various life situations. In one case or another, people who are superior to the rest in some qualities, when the need arises, show them and stand out from the crowd. That is, a leader is the person who has realized his qualities better than others. This theory has its drawbacks. It was found that:

• some people have deep professional knowledge, but are not able to engage in leadership activities;
• in difficult situations the goals of different members of the group may be different, and there is a struggle of such goals for priority;
• in the practice of managerial activity, in spite of the changing tasks of the group, the change of leaders is not allowed.

The situational theory of leadership does not fully take into account the independence of the leader, his ability to influence the situation.

Systemic

A leader is a person who organizes a group better than others in order to solve a specific problem. This person has more of the right personality to solve the problem than any other member of the group. He is expected to meet the basic requirements: be able to coordinate the activities of the group, ensure its safety and give confidence in success.

Leadership is often seen as a form of power. In this regard, the concept arose that is, the constant, legitimate and priority influence of a person occupying an authoritative position on a group or society.

There are charismatic, situational and systemic theories of political leadership. The remaining existing theories are varieties of the main ones. So, a kind of charismatic approach is a psychological concept, represented by Z. Freud.

Its essence is as follows: at the heart of the occurrence of the phenomenon is a suppressed libido. As a result of the process of sublimation, it manifests itself as a desire for power. In an effort to get rid of the complex, the person imposes his will on others and becomes a leader.

Classification of political leaders

M.J. Hermann singled out 4 images of leaders: a minister, a standard-bearer, a merchant and a fireman. The minister expresses the interests of his followers, relying in his activities on their opinion, the standard-bearer relies on his own vision of reality, which he is able to captivate the masses. A salesman knows how to correctly present his program to voters, and a fireman can quickly find solutions to emerging problems.

Depending on what is considered the source of leadership effectiveness and what meaning is invested in its phenomenon, there are five groups of leadership theories:

1) the theory of traits (leadership and leadership effectiveness are considered as a property of the individual);

2) behavioral theories (the effectiveness of leadership is a function of behavior);

3) situational (the effectiveness of leadership is a consequence of action in a situation);

4) attributive theories;

5) exchange theory.

Theories of traits associated with the idea of ​​a leader as a special person, a "great man" with innate abilities to control the masses. A leader can only be one who possesses the necessary set of personal qualities. The result of numerous studies was recommendations on the composition of the basic qualities of leaders from the foreman to the president of the country, taking into account the content and features of the performance of the professional functions entrusted to them. The most representative of the modern researchers of leadership traits are McClelland, Miner, B. Bass and Shakelton. For example, Shakelton argues that the main features that define that part of the leadership phenomenon that is associated with individual features modern leader, are intelligence, self-confidence, purposefulness, personal integrity and sociability - sociability, inclination and ability to establish relationships with people.

Almost simultaneously with trait theories, leadership studies began to develop behavioral theories, considering not personal qualities, but behavioral features as the determining basis for the success of leadership. The most active behavioral studies of leadership were carried out at two US universities - Ohio and Michigan. The purpose of these studies was to identify the factors of effective leader behavior. They showed that the entire set of actions of the leader can be described using two unrelated scales, called "participation" and "initiation of the structure." High scores on the "participation" scale indicate that the leader is attentive to the needs and feelings of subordinates, while high scores on the "initiation of structure" scale indicate the presence of behavior aimed at structuring and organizing work. It was found that the behavior of effective leaders is characterized by their simultaneous focus on the task, on relations with subordinates and on ensuring the opportunity for subordinates to participate in decision-making.

situational theories leadership is based on the assertion that the success of leadership is ensured not so much by the personal qualities and behavior of the leader, but by his ability to act adequately to a particular situation. Among the most recognized situational theories in world science are F. Fiedler's personal-situational theory, the theory of cognitive resources, the House path-goal theory and the Vroom-Yetton-Yago decision-making model.

Personal situational theory F. Fiedler considers the behavior of a leader as determined by two main groups of variables, namely, the properties of the leader and the parameters of the situation. Favorability - the unfavorability of the situation in theory is estimated as the result of the combined action of the factors of the structure of the task, the group atmosphere and the power that the leader's position has.).

Theory of cognitive resources assesses under what conditions cognitive resources, such as intelligence and experience, are associated with group performance. The effectiveness of group behavior depends on the personality traits of the leader, his behavior and the characteristics of the situation. For example, this theory claims that a thought leader will be better able to handle a challenging task. At the same time, the higher the stress level of the situation, the better the task will be performed by the leader.

House's path-goal theory considers leadership from the standpoint of interaction between the leader and the subordinate in the course of achieving a common goal. From the point of view of this theory, the role of a leader is to help subordinates acquire skills that will help them achieve their desired goals, as well as to modify expectations and beliefs about the process and consequences of performing a certain task. The behavior of the leader will be supported by subordinates to the extent that subordinates will consider his behavior as leading to the direct or indirect satisfaction of their expectations.

In the theory of Vroom - Yetton - Iago, Leader performance is seen in context with decision-making processes. The "decision tree", presented in theory, is a model that prescribes the use of various decision-making styles from autocratic to group, depending on the situation. The situation parameters that determine the choice of style are the presence of an acceptable solution and the necessary degree of approval from subordinates.

Attribute theories of leadership argue that leadership in a group is not a real-life phenomenon, determined by the qualities of the personality and behavior of the leader, but the result of subjective perceptions and social representations of subordinates. If the leader's actions correspond to the ideas of subordinates, then the latter conclude that leadership exists and evaluate it as effective. The more accurate the match between the perceived attributes (essential properties) and behavior of the leader, on the one hand, and the representations of subordinates, on the other, the higher the likelihood that subordinates will perceive the leader as a leader and allow him to carry out the process of influence.

Exchange theories represent leadership as a complex process of interaction and mutual influence of the leader and subordinates. Leading among them are the theory of dyads, theories of charismatic and transformational leadership. The main statement of these theories is that the effectiveness of leadership directly depends on the leader's ability to ensure that subordinates adequately perceive the goals of his activity. For example, transformational leadership implies not only a demonstration of personality traits and actions in accordance with the situation, but also constant participation and concern for the development of the personal potential of employees.

There are several approaches to the study of leadership.

1. Approach from the standpoint of personal qualities(1930s) explains leadership by the presence of a certain set of personal qualities common to all leaders. However, in practice the presence standard set qualities that lead to success in all situations have not been confirmed.

2. Behavioral Approach(1940–50s) considers leadership as a set of patterns of behavior of a leader in relation to subordinates.

3. situational approach(early 1960s) argues that situational factors play a decisive role in leadership effectiveness, while not rejecting the importance of personal and behavioral characteristics.

4. Modern approaches(1990s) postulate efficiency adaptive guidance - reality-oriented guidance. It means the application of all known management styles, methods and ways of influencing people, in accordance with a specific situation. This allows us to interpret leadership not only as a science, but also as an art of management.

1. Approach from the standpoint of personal qualities explains leadership by the presence of a certain set of personal qualities common to all leaders. Based on the analysis of the results of twenty studies, over eighty such characteristics (physical, intellectual, personality, psychological) were identified. At the same time, the most common features that distinguish an effective leader from those whom he leads are ambition, energy, honesty and directness, self-confidence, adaptability, ability and knowledge. These qualities are especially evident in well-known outstanding leaders (the theory of great people). However, personal qualities do not guarantee success, and their relative importance depends to a large extent on other factors, including the situation in which the manager operates. However, within the framework this approach the first step was taken and the scientific basis was laid for the implementation of the processes of recruitment, selection and promotion of personnel based on personal qualities. The concepts of personal characteristics are reflected in various programs for assessing the performance and development of employees.

2. Behavioral approach indicates that effective leadership depends not so much on the personal characteristics of the manager, but on the adequacy of the situation of his behavior, skill level and actions taken. The behavioral approach focuses on leadership style, which is understood as a set of characteristic techniques and methods used by the manager in the management process. The style reflects the degree of delegation of authority by the manager to his subordinates, the type of authority used, methods of working with external environment, ways of influencing the staff, the usual manner of behavior of the leader in relation to subordinates.

The main behavioral models of leadership include the theory of "X" and "Y" by D. McGregor, the theory of leadership by K. Levin, the continuum of leadership styles by R. Likert, the management grid of R. Blake and D. Moutan, the theory of E. Fleishman and E. Harris and etc.

a) relationship oriented behavior(respect for the needs of employees, concern for the development of personnel);

b) task-oriented behavior at any cost (when ignoring the needs and interests of subordinates, underestimating the need for staff development).

One of the most common is the theory of leadership. K. Levina(1938). She identifies three leadership styles:

authoritarian- characterized by rigidity, exactingness, unity of command, the prevalence of power functions, strict control and discipline, focus on results, ignoring socio-psychological factors;

democratic- relies on collegiality, trust, informing subordinates, initiative, creativity, self-discipline, consciousness, responsibility, encouragement, publicity, orientation not only on results, but also on ways to achieve them;

liberal- characterized by low demands, connivance, lack of discipline and exactingness, the passivity of the leader and the loss of control over subordinates, giving them complete freedom of action.

K. Levin's research provided the basis for the search for a management style that can lead to high labor productivity and satisfaction of performers.

Considerable attention was paid to the study of leadership styles in the works R. Likert, who in 1961 proposed a continuum of leadership styles. Its extreme positions are work-centered leadership and person-centered leadership, with all other leadership behaviors in between.

According to this theory, there are four leadership styles:

1) Exploitative-authoritarian: the leader has clear characteristics of an autocrat, does not trust subordinates, rarely involves them in decision-making, and forms tasks himself. The main stimulus is fear and the threat of punishment, rewards are random, interaction is based on mutual distrust. Formal and informal organization are in conflict.

2) paternalistic-authoritarian: the manager favorably allows subordinates to take limited part in decision-making. Rewards are real and punishments are potential, both of which are used to motivate workers. Informal organization is somewhat opposed to formal structure.

3) Advisory: head accepts strategic decisions and, showing trust, delegates tactical decisions to subordinates. The limited involvement of employees in the decision-making process is used for motivation. The informal organization does not coincide with the formal structure only partially.

4) Democratic characterized by complete trust, based on the wide involvement of personnel in the management of the organization. The decision-making process is dispersed across all levels, although it is integrated. The flow of communications goes not only in vertical directions, but also horizontally. Formal and informal organizations interact constructively.

R. Likert called model 1 task-oriented with a rigidly structured management system, and model 4 - relationship-oriented, which are based on team work organization, collegial management, delegation of authority and general control. According to R. Likert, the latter approach is the most effective.

In general, behavioral theories of leadership have contributed to increased attention to learning effective forms behavior. The task of the organization was not only to recognize an effective leader in the personnel selection process, but also to teach him the skills of successful people management. The behavioral approach laid the foundation for the classification of leadership styles, directed the efforts of managers to find the optimal style, but already in the early 1960s. began to be regarded as limited, since it did not take into account a number of other important factors that determine the effectiveness of management activities in a given situation.

3. Situational approach: decisive role in effective management play situational factors, while not rejecting the importance of personal and behavioral characteristics. The main situational theories of leadership are the leadership model of F. Fiedler, the "path-goal" approach of T. Mitchell and R. House, the situational leadership theory of P. Hersey and C. Blanchard, the decision-making model of V. Vroom and P. Yetton, etc.

Most situational models are based on the proposition that the choice of an adequate leadership style is determined as a result of analyzing the nature of the managerial situation and determining its key factors.

One of the first theories of the situational approach was the leadership model. F. Fidler. She focused on the situation and identified three factors that influence the behavior of the leader:

− relationship between leader and subordinates(degree of trust and respect);

− task structure(labor regulation);

− leader power(volume of official powers).

Fiedler classified group leaders in terms of their relationship to "least preferred employee" (LPC) based on personal qualities and relationships. The basis of the leader's characteristics is his assessment of the NPS, which allows you to establish two orientations that determine the effectiveness of the leadership style: focus on human relations(leader characterizing NPS in positive categories) and task orientation(leader giving the NPC a negative assessment). This theory established two important facts related to the provision of effective leadership.

Task-oriented leaders ensure that the group performs better in both favorable and unfavorable situations. Relationship-oriented leaders ensure higher group performance in intermediate states;

The effectiveness of the leader's work depends both on the degree of favorable situation and on the style of leadership.

The decisive factor is the appropriateness of the leadership style and the situation in which the team works. This can be achieved in two ways:

- to adapt the leader to the situation (through his selection, stimulation, training, retraining, in extreme cases - replacement);

- change the situation (by giving the manager additional powers).

The condition for optimal management styles is the focus on solving production problems and establishing favorable relationships in the team. This theory argues that an effective leader must demonstrate both styles and apply them depending on the nature of the current managerial situation.

It is also important to conclude that every situation in which leadership is manifested is always a combination of the actions of the leader, the behavior of his subordinates, time, place and other circumstances. And this combination is more often unfavorable than favorable.

Great importance has the theory of situational leadership P. Hersey and C. Blanchard. It is based on the position that an effective leadership style depends on the "maturity" of the performers. Maturity is determined ability(qualification and experience of employees) and mood(willingness to bear responsibility, desire to achieve the goal, self-confidence), i.e. is a characteristic of a particular situation.

Analyzing various combinations of orientation to work tasks and human relationships, P. Hersey and C. Blanchard identified the following leadership styles: instructing (S1), persuading (S2), encouraging (S3) and delegating (S4) corresponding to the levels of development of employees (Appendix No. 4).

The theory establishes four leadership styles corresponding to the level of maturity of the staff:

ü high task orientation and low people orientation (give directions, instructions);

ü equally high orientation to the task and people (to sell, to convince);

ü low task orientation and high people orientation (participate, encourage);

ü Equally low task and people orientation (to delegate).

This theory states that an effective leadership style should always be different depending on the maturity of the performers and the nature of the managerial situation.

Decision Model W. Vroom and P. Yetton focuses on the decision making process. She highlights five leadership styles, representing the continuum, from autocratic decision-making style(A1 and A2), advisory(C1 and C2) and up to group(full participation style) (G2):

A1 - the manager himself solves the problem and makes a decision using the information available to him;

A2 - the manager himself solves the problem, but the collection and primary analysis of information is carried out by subordinates;

C1 - the manager makes a decision through individual consultations with individual subordinates;

C2 - similar to style C1, but consultations are held in a group form;

G2 - the decision is made by the group in which the manager plays the role of "chairman".

The application of each of these styles depends on the situation (problem) for which assessments are designed. seven consistently used in the decision-making process criteria:

1) the value of the quality of the solution;

2) the manager has sufficient information and experience to make effective solution;

3) the degree of structure of the problem;

4) the importance of the involvement of subordinates for making an effective decision;

5) the probability of supporting the leader's autocratic decision;

6) the degree of motivation of subordinates in solving the problem;

7) the likelihood of conflict between subordinates when choosing an alternative.

The first three criteria relate to the quality of the decision, the last four - to the factors that limit the agreement of subordinates with the decision.

A graphical interpretation of the theory has been developed in the form of a "decision tree", where each criterion is formulated as a question (Appendix No. 5).

The choice of leadership style is carried out by evaluating the criteria of the problem, corresponding to the current situation.

Like other situational theories, the Vroom-Yetton model has received the support of many management theorists, but at the same time has been seriously criticized. Many note that the model explains how to make and execute a decision, and not how to achieve efficiency and satisfaction of subordinates.

Situational theories of leadership are of great practical importance, since they assert a plurality of optimal leadership styles depending on the situation. They point to the lack of a single universal management style and establish the effectiveness of leadership depending on situational factors. The manager must be able to be flexible and find the optimal solution, not relying only on intuition or habitual behavior, but adapting to the requirements of a particular situation.

At present, the opinion is firmly established that the effectiveness of leadership is situational in nature and depends on the preferences, personal qualities of subordinates, the degree of their faith in their own strengths and the ability to influence the situation. Leadership is also determined by the personality traits of the leader himself, his intellectual, personal, business and professional quality. They are much more difficult to correct than, for example, decision-making methods.

In each case, the actions of the leader should be determined by the specific situation. The leader who will be able to use the situation that has arisen will be effective. To do this, it is necessary to know well the abilities of subordinates, their ability to complete the task, the limits of their influence on the performers.

In the process of performing the task, the situation may change, and this will require changing the ways of influencing subordinates, i.e. leadership style. Like management in general, leadership is to some extent an art, so a successful leader will be able to change his leadership style if necessary, i.e. focus on real conditions production and the environment.

4. Modern approaches to effective leadership include the concept of leadership substitutes, attribution theory, transformational leadership, and the charismatic approach.

Leadership Substitutes. Unlike previous, traditional approaches to leadership, the theory of leadership substitutes argues that in some cases, hierarchical leadership makes little to no sense. D. Germier and a number of other researchers are convinced that certain individual, work and organizational variables can either act as a substitute for leadership or neutralize the leader's influence on subordinates. Some of these variables are listed in Appendix No. 6.

Leadership substitutes make the leader's influence either unnecessary or redundant if they take his place. It is not necessary or even possible for a leader to lead on a mission-oriented basis if the instructions already come from an experienced, talented, and well-trained subordinate. Unlike substitutes for leadership, neutralizers prevent certain forms of leader behavior or negate all of his actions. Thus, if a leader has little formal power or is physically separated from his subordinates, his actions can be nullified even in cases where a supportive leadership style is needed.

A number of studies comparing workers from Mexico, the US, and Japan have shown that there are both similarities and differences between leadership substitutes in these countries. A review of 17 studies carried out in the USA and other countries also contains rather contradictory data. Thus, the authors of the studies argue that it is necessary to expand the list of characteristics and behavioral styles of a leader, and that, apparently, such an approach is especially important when considering high performing teams. In this case, for example, the team itself can set its own standards and replace them with the requirements of a higher manager, indicating what standards subordinates should be guided by when performing work and how exactly they should solve the tasks (task-oriented behavior).

Attribution theory and leadership. All of the traditional leadership theories that have been discussed so far have been based on the assumption that leadership and its impact are objectively identifiable and measurable. However, this is not always fair. Attribution theory addresses precisely these problems - people's attempts to understand causes, assess responsibility and personal qualities, since in each case all these parameters are involved. Attribution theory is essential to understanding the nature of leadership.

To begin with, let's think about a team or student group whose activities you are familiar with. Now suppose you were asked to rate her leader on one of the scales. If you are like the vast majority of people, then the high performance of the group will encourage you to give a positive characterization of its leader; in other words, you will attribute good qualities to a leader based on the high performance of his group. Similarly, leaders themselves may attribute causes to the activities of their subordinates and respond differently, depending on the attribution. For example, if a leader attributes the low performance of employees to their lack of effort, he may reprimand them; but if he ascribes it external factor, such as being overloaded at work, you might try to fix the problem. There is a lot of evidence in favor of the attribution theory in the relationship between subordinates and managers.

charismatic approaches. According to the ideas R. House charismatic leaders are those who, by virtue of their personal abilities, can exert a profound and extremely powerful influence on their subordinates. Such leaders have a strong need for power, a sense of self-efficacy, and a deep moral conviction. Thus, the desire for power induces in these people the desire to become leaders. Subsequently, this need is reinforced by confidence in one's own moral rightness. In turn, this sense of self-efficacy makes these people feel they can be leaders. These character traits define charismatic behavior - role modeling, image building, clear goal setting (emphasis on simple and dramatic goals), emphasis on high expectations, demonstrating confidence, and creating motivation in followers.

One of the most interesting and important works based on House's charismatic theory is a study of US presidents. The results of this work demonstrated that some presidents were characterized by charisma, due to the personality traits listed in the House theory and the reaction to crisis situations. As for the rest of the presidents, those voters who considered Bill Clinton a charismatic person continued to vote for him. R. House and colleagues summarized the results of other works, which to some extent confirmed their theory. The most interesting of these studies demonstrated that negative or "dark" charismatic leaders emphasized personalized power—themselves, while positive or "light" charismatic leaders emphasized socialized power and delegation of power to their supporters. This helps explain the differences between dark leaders like Adolf Hitler and bright leaders like Martin Luther King.

transformational approach. Based on the ideas of D. McGregor Burns and the work of R. House, B. Bass proposed an approach emphasizing transformational leadership.

Transformational leadership goes beyond the routine of doing work. According to B. Bass, transformational leadership takes place when leaders expand and give a new level to the interests of their employees, when they achieve awareness and acceptance of the goals and mission of the group, and when they force their followers to give up selfishness in the name of those around them.

Transformational leadership is characterized by four dimensions: charisma, inspiration, intellectual upsurge and respect for the individual. Charisma provides a vision and a sense of the mission being carried out, generates pride, respect and trust of subordinates. So, the manifestation of charisma was that S. Jobs, the founder of Apple Computer, emphasized the fundamental novelty of the Macintosh computer. Inspiration creates high hopes, uses symbols to focus efforts on a single goal, and provides a simple description of important goals. Thus, in the film Patton, J. Scott stands in front of the troops against the backdrop of an American flag the size of a wall and two holsters with revolvers on his side, the handles of which are decorated with ivory. Intellectual uplift stimulates the mind, rationality and careful problem solving. For example, your boss urges you to take a fresh look at a very difficult task. Respect for the individual implies personal attention to each person, an individual approach to each employee, mentoring and advice. For example, your boss says something that reinforces your confidence in your own worth as a person.

Even in ancient times, people were interested not only in who would manage the population or part of it, but also what kind of person such a person should be. This question was asked not only by ordinary citizens of the then states, but also by scientists and philosophers; the first steps in the study of different problems can be found in the texts of the works of ancient Greek and ancient Roman classics. Over the centuries, the idea of ​​the ideal leader has constantly evolved. Machiavelli also dealt with this problem (his most famous work, The Sovereign, just describes what an ideal ruler should be), and many other thinkers.

Now psychology, political science, and many others modern sciences develop their own classifications and theories of leadership, its nature and other related things. Consideration of the most popular theories is conducted in this publication.

Theories on the origin of leadership

The theory of leadership traits, or charismatic theory, is one of the earliest serious approaches to the problem of leadership and what in a person is a prerequisite for it. The basis of this theory is the idea that a person does not become a leader as a result of his actual actions and his own life experience, but is one immediately from the moment of birth. The essence of the theory of traits itself is to identify those qualities that are necessarily inherent in a born leader.

Back in 1948, R. Stogdill made an attempt to compile a list of such characteristics. His list included such qualities of an individual as:

• intellectual possibilities;
• dominance over others;
• self-confidence;
• serious knowledge of what he does;
• activity (energy, lack of passivity).

It's important to know! In practice, the lists that Stogdilla and R. Mann (compiled in 1959) did not work: the main quality in them, intelligence, was inherent in many people who were not leaders in fact.

In the mid-eighties, W. Bennis, renowned consultant from America, conducted a large-scale study of nine dozen popular leaders and divided the characteristics that define their personality into four groups:

1. physiological - weight, height, and so on, and distinguishing a person from society is not necessarily in a favorable direction (Churchill, Macedonian, Lenin are excellent examples of this);
2. emotional (psychological) - efficiency, initiative and many other character traits (in practice, no evidence of a connection with leadership was really found);
3. intellectual - than smarter man, the closer it is to leadership, although it still depends on the average mental level of the audience, so here again there is no direct correlation;
4. personal business - these are skills already acquired in the process of work; here everything depends on the level of skills in a certain area and again does not find direct evidence of the fidelity of this part of the theory, because if someone had success in the field, for example, the art business, it is not a fact that his skills would help him reach the top in banking, and vice versa.

The theory of personality traits is interesting in itself, but its practical application often fails, which indicates, rather, the incorrect approach to studying leadership qualities than about being able to apply it to reality. The lack of clear evidence of a connection with the identified qualities and an almost endless list of such characteristics themselves indicate the failure of either the people who conducted the research, or the whole theory as a whole.

The essence of such theories is that the personal qualities of a leader and his characteristic management style are important, but the success of his actions depends on the specific situation, so situational leadership theories are important for practice.

The leader must be able to turn any situation in a favorable direction for business and be able to adapt to sudden changes in what is happening; in short, the leader must be flexible and mobile. For successful "twisting" in any situation, a clear knowledge of the qualities of subordinate people is a necessity.

Currently, this is one of the still relevant leadership theories.

It's important to know! There is also a compromise theory, a system one - it involves the definition of a leader as the most effective organizer of subordinates in order to solve the problem facing them.

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Also, such a person will combine the greatest number of qualities that fall under the set of values ​​of an organized group of people.

This set of theories is limited to two - one is focused on interpersonal relations between the leader and subordinates, and for the other it is important to achieve the goal at any cost. For both theories important criteria are:

• ways of influencing the staff and, in general, the attitude of the boss towards subordinates;
• the degree of delegation of authority to subordinates;
• type of power;
• way of interacting with the external environment.

Already in the sixties of the twentieth century, behavioral theories of leadership were recognized as untenable because of their limitations, because they did not take into account many other factors that affect the effectiveness of management.

Leadership theories from the point of view of psychology

Theories of leadership in psychology, all as one, argue that the very fact of becoming a leader, leader, boss is influenced, first of all, by the desire of the person himself to become one; but the existing explanations for the presence of such a desire are very different.

According to Freud, the basis of the desire to have a leadership position is repressed sexual desire. The followers of Freudian psychoanalysis, instead of libido, consider psychic energy as a whole to be the main thing here; sublimating, a person strives to guide something, creativity, and so on.

Also, leadership can help a person to fill in the missing aspects of his life, that is, to satisfy the psychological needs for something. For example, being a leader can replace someone's ability to become a parent; let's say CEO big company– as a “father” to its employees; why not compensation?

Representatives of the Frankfurt School identified a personality type pathologically striving for leadership due to many complexes: this is an authoritarian person, most often found in dysfunctional societies. Imposing one's will on others is a psychological need of such individuals; meanwhile, such aspirations are by no means a sign of strength, but of a serious inner weakness of a person.

However, there are many more motivations for gaining power than described earlier in this section. One of the examples of treating it not as a pleasure is instrumental (it gives material and not only benefits, and if it didn’t, many would not at all aspire to leadership positions and even informal leadership). Another example is "game" leadership, that is, the fascination and interest of the management process itself for the leader.

unresolved problem

The problem of leadership and traits characteristic of a leader is still in the unresolved area; theories are still being developed, many of them are constantly refuted by practice, and scientists cannot come to a unified solution.