The importance of adaptation of organisms to their environment. Relative nature of adaptations

Look at Figures 158-163. What are the adaptations of the organisms depicted in the pictures to their living conditions? Consider whether organisms will retain these adaptations if their living conditions change.

All organisms have a variety of adaptations to their living conditions. These adaptations develop in the process of evolution in two stages. Initially, new characteristics appear in organisms due to mutational and combinational variability. These traits are then tested by natural selection for their suitability to environmental conditions.

Examples of adaptations of organisms. Examples of adaptations of organisms to living conditions are so numerous that it is almost impossible to describe them all. Let's give just a few examples.

Rice. 158. Protective coloration in animals: 1 - solid coloration of the winter plumage of the tundra partridge; 2 - dismembering coloration in axis deer

Morphological adaptations include, found in different organisms, various types of protective, warning coloration, camouflage and means of passive protection.

Protective coloration develops in individuals living openly, which makes them less noticeable against the surrounding background. This coloring can be solid (the white plumage of the tundra partridge in winter), if the surrounding background is uniform, or disjunctive (light and dark dots on the skin of axis deer), if spots of light and shadow alternate on the surrounding background (Fig. 158). The effect of protective coloring is enhanced by the corresponding behavior of the animal. At the moment of danger, they hide, which makes them even less noticeable against the surrounding background.

Warning coloration develops in individuals that have chemical means of defense against enemies. These include, for example, stinging or poisonous insects, inedible or burning plants. In the process of evolution, they developed not only toxic chemicals, but also bright, usually red-black or yellow-black colors (Fig. 159). Some animals with warning coloration, at the moment of danger, show bright spots to the predator and take a threatening pose, which confuses the enemy.

Rice. 159. Warning coloration in dart frogs

Camouflage is protection served not only by coloring, but also by body shape. There are two types of camouflage. The first is that the camouflaging organism, in its own way appearance resembles some object - a leaf, a twig, a stone, etc. This type of camouflage is widely found in insects: stick insects, bugs and caterpillars of moth butterflies (Fig. 160).

Rice. 160. Camouflage of leaf bugs

The second type of camouflage is based on the imitative similarity of unprotected organisms to protected ones. Thus, harmless glass butterflies, with the color of their abdomen, resemble stinging insects - wasps, therefore insectivorous birds do not touch them (Fig. 161).

Rice. 161. Camouflage of the glass butterfly

Means of passive defense increase the likelihood of preserving the organism in the struggle for existence. For example, turtle shells, mollusk shells, and hedgehog needles protect them from attacks by enemies. Thorns on the stems of roses and thorns on cacti prevent herbivorous mammals from eating these plants (Fig. 162).

Rice. 162. Means of passive defense in the prickly pear cactus

Physiological adaptations ensure the resistance of organisms to changes in temperature, humidity, light and other conditions of inanimate nature.

Thus, when the ambient temperature drops in amphibians and reptiles, the level of metabolism in the body decreases and winter sleep begins. In birds and mammals, on the contrary, when the ambient temperature decreases, the metabolism in the body increases, which increases heat production. The thick feathers, fur and subcutaneous layer of fat that develops prevent the body from losing heat (Fig. 163).

Rice. 163. The winter fur of a squirrel has a thick undercoat

Behavioral adaptations are found only in animals with a highly developed nervous system. They represent various shapes behaviors aimed at the survival of both individuals and the species as a whole.

All behavioral adaptations can be divided into congenital and acquired. Innate ones include, for example, mating behavior, protection and feeding of offspring, avoidance of predators, and migration. Thus, when a lioness licks her cubs, she remembers their smell. The same process awakens in her the need to protect the lion cubs from enemies (Fig. 164, 1).

Rice. 164. Behavioral adaptations of organisms: 1 - lioness licking lion cubs; 2 - Japanese macaques basking in a hot spring; 3 - waterfowl wintering on an ice-free reservoir in the city

Acquired behavioral adaptations also play an important role in the lives of animals. For example, the northernmost species of monkeys, the Japanese macaque, found in northern Japan, switched to a snow-water lifestyle (Fig. 164, 2). In winter, when severe frosts set in, these monkeys descend from the mountains to hot springs, where they bask in warm water. Another clear example. In large cities of central Russia, the behavior of migratory birds has changed. Thus, some waterfowl stopped flying to wintering in warm regions. They gather in large flocks on non-freezing reservoirs, where there is always the necessary food (Fig. 164, 3).

Relative feasibility of devices. All adaptations in organisms are developed in the specific conditions of their environment. If environmental conditions change, adaptations may lose their positive meaning, in other words, they have relative expediency.

There is a lot of evidence of the relative expediency of adaptations: the body’s defense against some enemies is ineffective against others; the body's behavior may become meaningless; An organ that is useful in some conditions turns out to be useless in others. For example, a warbler, thanks to its parental instinct, feeds a cuckoo hatchling from an egg thrown into the nest by the cuckoo (Fig. 165).

Rice. 165. Relative expediency of adaptations of organisms - warbler, nursing cuckoo

So, the main result of the action of the driving forces of evolution is the emergence of new adaptations in organisms and the improvement of existing ones. Since the conditions of existence of organisms change, there are no absolute adaptations in nature, and the process of their appearance is endless. In individuals belonging to the same species, the differences in the available adaptations are insignificant. The consolidation of these differences under conditions of isolation leads to the emergence of new species, i.e. to speciation.

Exercises based on the material covered

How do individuals adapt to their environment?
What is the relative expediency of devices? Illustrate your answer with examples.
Can organisms, in the course of long evolution, develop absolute, i.e., perfect, adaptations? Give reasons for your answer.

Lesson objectives:

repetition and consolidation of knowledge about the driving forces of evolution;
to form the concept of the adaptability of organisms to their environment, knowledge about the mechanisms of adaptation as a result of evolution;
continue to develop the skills to use knowledge of theoretical laws to explain phenomena observed in living nature;
to form specific knowledge about adaptive structural features, body coloring and animal behavior.

Equipment:

Table “Adaptability and its relative nature”, photographs, drawings, collections of plant and animal organisms, cards for performing tests, presentation.

1. Repetition of the material studied:

In the form of a frontal conversation, it is proposed to answer questions.

a) Name the only guiding driving force of evolution.
b) What is the supplier of material for selection in the population?
c) It is known that hereditary variability, which supplies material for selection, is random and not directed. How does natural selection become directional?
d) Give an explanation from an evolutionary point of view for the following expression: “It is not individual genes that are subject to selection, but entire phenotypes. The phenotype is not only an object of selection, but also plays the role of a transmitter of hereditary information over generations.”

As the question is posed, its text is displayed on the screen (a presentation is used)

2. The teacher brings the conversation to the formulation of the topic of the lesson.

In nature, there is a discrepancy between the ability of organisms to reproduce unlimitedly and limited resources. Is this the reason...? the struggle for existence, as a result of which the individuals most adapted to environmental conditions survive. (Display the diagram on the screen, students write it down in a notebook)

So, one of the results of natural selection can be called the development of adaptations in all living organisms - adaptations to the environment, i.e. fitness is the result of action natural selection in the given conditions of existence.

(Message about the topic of the lesson, writing in a notebook)

Think and try to formulate what is the essence of adaptation to environmental conditions? (Together with the students, the teacher gives a definition of fitness, which is written down in a notebook and displayed on a slide screen)

Adaptability of organisms or adaptations- a set of those features of their structure, physiological processes and behavior that provide for a given species the possibility of a specific lifestyle in certain environmental conditions.

What do you think is the importance of fitness for organisms?

Meaning: adaptability to environmental conditions increases the chances of organisms to survive and leave a large number of offspring. (Write in notebook, display slide on screen)

The question arises, how are adaptations formed? Let's try to explain the formation of an elephant's trunk from the point of view of C. Linnaeus, J.B. Lamarck, C. Darwin.

(On the screen is a photograph of an elephant and the wording of the question posed)

Probable student answers:

According to Linnaeus: the fitness of organisms is a manifestation of original expediency. The driving force is God. Example: God created elephants, like all animals. Therefore, from the moment of their appearance, all elephants have a long trunk.

According to Lamarck: the idea of the innate ability of organisms to change under the influence of the external environment. The driving force of evolution is the desire of organisms for perfection. Example: Elephants, when getting food, had to constantly stretch out their upper lip to get food (exercise). This trait is inherited. This is how the long trunk of elephants came into being.

According to Darwin: among the many elephants there were animals with trunks of different lengths. Those of them with a slightly longer trunk were more successful in obtaining food and surviving. This trait was inherited. So, gradually, the long trunk of elephants arose.

Which explanation is more realistic? Let's try to describe the mechanism by which adaptations arise. (Scheme on screen)

3. Variety of adaptations.

On the students' desks are drawings and collections illustrating the various adaptations of organisms to the environment. Work in pairs or groups. Students describe adaptations, name them themselves or with the help of the teacher. These devices appear on the screen as the conversation progresses.

1. Morphological adaptations (changes in body structure).

streamlined body shape in fish and birds
membranes between the toes of waterfowl
thick fur in northern mammals
flat body in bottom fish
creeping and cushion-shaped form in plants in northern latitudes and high mountain regions

2. Camouflage: body shape and color blend with surrounding objects (slide).

(Seahorse, stick insects, caterpillars of some butterflies).

3. Patronizing coloring:

developed in species that live openly and may be accessible to enemies (eggs of openly nesting birds, grasshopper, flounder). If the background of the environment is not constant depending on the season of the year, the animals change their color (white hare, brown hare).

4. Warning color:

Very bright, characteristic of poisonous and stinging forms (wasps, bumblebees, ladybugs, rattlesnakes). Often combined with demonstrative scaring behavior.

5. Mimicry:

similarity in color and body shape of unprotected organisms with protected ones (hoverflies and bees, tropical snakes and poisonous snakes; snapdragon flowers look like bumblebees - insects try to establish mating relationships, which promotes pollination; eggs laid by the cuckoo). Mimics never outnumber the original species. Otherwise, the warning coloring will lose its meaning.

6. Physiological adaptations:

adaptability of life processes to living conditions.

accumulation of fat by desert animals before the onset of the dry season (camel)
glands that eliminate excess salts in reptiles and birds that live near the sea
water conservation in cacti
rapid metamorphosis in desert amphibians
thermolocation, echolocation
state of partial or complete suspended animation

7. Behavioral adaptations:

changes in behavior in certain conditions

caring for offspring improves the survival of young animals and increases the stability of their populations
the formation of individual pairs during the mating season, and in the winter they unite in flocks. What makes food and protection easier (wolves, many birds)
deterrent behavior (bombardier beetle, skunk)
freezing, feigning injury or death (opossums, amphibians, birds)
precautionary behavior: hibernation, food storage

8. Biochemical adaptations:

associated with the formation in the body of certain substances that facilitate the defense of enemies or attacks on other animals

poisons of snakes, scorpions
antibiotics for fungi and bacteria
crystals of potassium oxalate in the leaves or spines of plants (cactus, nettle)
special structure of proteins and lipids in thermophiles (resistant to high temperatures)

and psychrophilic (cold-loving), allowing organisms to exist in hot springs, volcanic soils, and permafrost conditions.

Relative nature of adaptations.

It is suggested that you pay attention to the table: hare. Invisible to predators in the snow, clearly visible against the background of tree trunks. Together with the students, other examples are given: moths collect nectar from light flowers, but also fly towards the fire, although they die in the process; poisonous snakes are eaten by mongooses and hedgehogs; If you water a cactus too much, it will die.

What conclusion can be drawn?

Conclusion: any device is useful only in the conditions in which it was formed. When these conditions change, adaptations lose their value or even cause harm to the body. Therefore, fitness is relative.

When studying the topic, we relied on the teachings of Charles Darwin on natural selection. It explained the mechanism by which organisms adapt to their living conditions and proved that fitness is always relative.

4. Consolidation of knowledge.

There are test sheets and answer cards on the students' desks.

Option 1.

1. A phenomenon that serves as an example of camouflage coloring:

a) coloration of sika deer and tiger;
b) spots on the wings of some butterflies, similar to the eyes of vertebrates;
c) the similarity of the color of the wings of the pierida butterfly with the color of the wings of the inedible heliconid butterfly;
d) coloring of ladybugs and Colorado potato beetles.

2. How modern science explains the formation of organic expediency:

a) is the result of the active desire of organisms to adapt to specific environmental conditions;
b) is the result of natural selection of individuals that turned out to be more adapted than others to environmental conditions due to the presence of randomly occurring hereditary changes in them;
c) is the result of direct influence external conditions on the development of corresponding characteristics in organisms;
d) it was initially predetermined at the moment the creator created the main types of living beings.

3. Phenomenon. An example of which is the similarity between the lion fly and wasps in the color of the abdomen and the shape of the antennae:

a) warning coloring;
b) mimicry;
c) adaptive coloration;
d) camouflage.

4. Example of protective coloring:

5. Example of warning coloring:

a) bright red color of the rose flower;

d) similarity in color and body shape.

Option 2.

1. The main effect of natural selection:

a) increasing the frequency of genes in the population that ensure reproduction over generations;
b) increasing the frequency of genes in the population that ensure wide variability of organisms;
c) the appearance in the population of genes that ensure the preservation of characteristics of the species in organisms;
d) the appearance in the population of genes that determine the adaptation of organisms to living conditions;

2. Example of protective coloring:

a) green coloration of the singing grasshopper;
b) green color of leaves in most plants;
c) bright red color of the ladybug;
d) similarity in the color of the abdomen of the hoverfly and the wasp.

3. Masking example:

a) green coloration of the singing grasshopper;
b) similarity in the color of the abdomen of the hoverfly and the wasp;
c) bright red color of the ladybug;

4. Example of warning coloring:

a) bright red color of a rose flower;
b) the ladybug has a bright red color;
c) similarity in color between the hoverfly and the wasp;
d) similarity in color and body shape of the moth caterpillar with the knot.

5. Example of mimicry:

a) green coloration of the singing grasshopper;
b) the ladybug has a bright red color;
c) similarity in the color of the abdomen of the hoverfly and the wasp;
d) similarity in color and body shape of the moth caterpillar with the knot.

Answer card:

1 2 3 4 5
A
b
V
G

Homework:

paragraph 47;
fill out the table in paragraph 47:

The emergence of adaptation of organisms.
The main reason for the appearance of various adaptations of living organisms to their environment is selection. For example, it is known that the partridge is a forest bird. Depending on its habitat, it has various adaptations: a) shortening of the beak in connection with obtaining food from under the snow and leaf litter: b) the appearance of horny folds at the ends of the fingers to facilitate movement on thick snow cover; c) expansion, rounding of the wings for rapid lifting into the air (the ancestors of the partridge did not have such a structure).
To further spread, the fruits and seeds of plants also underwent various changes. These are hooks, spines with which they are attached to animals, or light fluff that is scattered by the wind.
The appearance of fitness in plants and animals is a characteristic phenomenon, but in any case, fitness does not appear immediately. As a result of long evolutionary process individuals appear with special characteristics adapted to environmental conditions.
Features of adaptation in structure, color, body shape and behavior are clearly visible in the example of an aquatic mammal - the dolphin. The pointed shape of the body allows it to move easily and freely in the water in different directions. The dolphin's speed reaches 40 km/h. And in birds, indicators of fitness for flight are the presence of feathers covering the body; absence of ears and teeth; the ability to turn your head 180"; lightness of bones; rapid digestion of food in the stomach, etc.
Many animals have such advanced adaptations that they are difficult to distinguish from their environment. The body shape, coloring of fish and animals living in dense thickets of algae help them successfully hide from enemies.

Types of adaptability:

Protective (camouflage) coloring and its types.
Instinctive adaptation.
Caring for offspring.
Physiological adaptation.

Rice. 21. Adaptation of moths by changing color to the corresponding colors of the tree trunk: 1 - equal number of marked dark and light butterflies; 2 - light tree trunk; 3 - increase in the number of light butterflies; 4 - increase in the number of dark butterflies; 5 - dark tree trunk

1. Protective (camouflage) coloring and its types. Protective coloration is the adaptability of organisms that live openly and may be accessible to enemies. Birds that incubate eggs on the ground (grouse, partridge, quail, etc.) blend into the surrounding background. A bird sitting motionless on a nest is almost invisible to its enemies. The eggs, which have a pigmented shell, and the chicks hatching from them are also hardly noticeable. In large predators whose eggs are inaccessible to enemies, or in birds that lay eggs high on rocks or bury them. into the ground, the protective color of the shell does not develop. Butterfly caterpillars are usually green, the color of the leaves, or dark, the color of the bark. Bottom-dwelling fish (skate, flounder) are often colored to match the color of sand.
Desert animals are usually sandy-yellow in color. A monochromatic protective color is characteristic of insects (locusts), lizards, saigas, and lions. Depending on the time of year, many animals change color. For example, the Arctic fox, white hare, and partridge are white in winter. Daytime butterflies have protective coloring on the lower part of their wings, while night butterflies have a protective color on the upper part of their wings, so during the day they become noticeable to enemies and may die (the lower part of their wings is light). The protective coloring can also be observed in the shape of insects: the pupa of butterflies on a branch is very similar to a bud; a larva attached to a branch in a motionless state, similar to a tree branch, etc.
Protective coloring is especially useful at the initial stages of individual development of the organism (eggs, larva, chick). Protective coloring is necessary for animals that move slowly or have entered a state of rest.
Many animals are able to quickly change color depending on the color of their environment, and this ability is inherited. For example: chameleon, flounder, agama.

Types of protective coloring:

protective painting;
attractive coloring;
threatening coloring;
imitative coloring.

1. Protective warning paint characteristic of poisonous, stinging or burning insects. For example, birds never peck a ladybug (red, yellow, brown, dark red, striped) because of the toxic, bitter yellowish liquid it secretes (Fig. 22). If the chicks accidentally peck this beetle, then next time they do not approach it. The carrion beetle secretes an unpleasant, burning liquid and is bright red striped in color. The coloring of bees, bumblebees, wasps, and poisonous snakes protects them from predators. Protective coloring also depends on the behavior of some insects and animals. Sometimes crawling beetles freeze in moments of danger. A bittern nesting in the reeds, accidentally seeing an enemy, stretches its neck, raises its head up and freezes. Warning coloration in animals is combined with behavior that scares away predators.

Rice. 22. Warning coloring: 1 - ladybug; 2 - blister

2. Attractive coloring. This coloration is especially important during breeding. The bright colors of red butterflies, blue-winged grasshoppers, jerboas, and the plumage of male birds attract females during the breeding season. On ordinary days the color blends in with environment and becomes invisible to enemies (Fig. 23).

Rice. 23. Attractive coloring: 1 - red sash; 2 - blue-winged filly; 3 - jerboa

3. Menacing coloring. When in danger, animals take a threatening pose. For example, in moments of danger, a cobra raises its head straight, inflates its neck and takes a threatening pose; The darkling beetle raises its abdomen and emits an unpleasant odor. The long-eared roundhead instantly opens the folds of skin on its head and freezes with its mouth open. On the open wings of the praying mantis there are spots similar to eyes. In case of danger, by opening its wings, the praying mantis scares away its enemy. Moths have the same spots (Fig. 24).

Rice. 24. Menacing coloring: ocular spots on the wings of a butterfly (1) in a threat pose look like the eyes of an elf owl (2)

4. Imitating coloring -mimicry(Greek mimikos - “imitation”). This is the imitation of animals and plants by living organisms or certain inanimate objects of the environment. The warning coloration of unprotected organisms resembles one or more species. For example, in body shape, size, and bright color, a cockroach is similar to a ladybug. The body shape of the seahorse and fish resembles algae. The white butterfly imitates inedible butterflies from the heliconid family (Fig. 25) with its unpleasant odor and bright coloring, and the flies imitate wasps. The similarity of non-venomous snakes with poisonous ones helps them protect themselves from enemies and survive.

Rice. 25. Imitative coloration: the white butterfly (T) is similar to the poisonous heliconid butterfly (2)

Examples of imitative plant coloring.
Imitative coloration in plants is necessary to attract or intimidate animals. Usually there is no nectar on the belozor flower. To attract insects, it is similar to a honey plant. Insects, landing on a flower, contribute to its pollination. The flowers of the insectivorous plant (Nepenthes) are brightly colored. Insects, landing on a flower, instantly fall into a “trap” and die. An orchid resembles the female of some insects in its flower shape and smell, so male insects involuntarily land on the flower and pollinate it.
Mimicry arises “under the control” of natural selection. Its occurrence is associated with the accumulation of small beneficial mutations in edible species in conditions of their cohabitation with inedible ones. One of the main weapons of defense against enemies and adaptive characteristics is: in beetles and crabs - chitinous cover, in mollusks - shells, in crocodiles - scales, in armadillos and turtles - carapace, in hedgehogs and porcupines - quills.

Fitness. Protective coloration. Protective painting. Attractive coloring. Menacing coloring. Imitative coloring (mimicry).

Main reason various adaptations of organisms to environmental conditions is selection.
Protective coloration is an adaptation necessary to protect organisms leading an open lifestyle from enemies.
Protective coloration is a type of protective coloration characteristic of poisonous, stinging, burning insects.
Attractive coloration is a type of protective coloration during the reproduction period of organisms.
Menacing coloring is a way of protecting animals from enemies by adopting a threatening pose.
Imitation of living organisms and inanimate objects of the environment is an adaptation of organisms that are unable to defend themselves or are inactive.
What traits of organisms determine fitness?
How does fitness occur?
Name the types of protective coloring.
Give an example of protective paint.

What organisms are characterized by imitative coloration?
Give examples that prove the usefulness of attractive colors.
What are examples of mimic coloration in plants?

Exercise
Have you ever encountered insects in nature that freeze when touched? Pay attention to their actions, immobility. Pay attention to insects that produce an unpleasant odorous odor. Compare them. This activity will help you become more familiar with the protective and threatening colors of animals.
Try to complete the task.
What type of protective coloration are these examples? Enter in capital letters accordingly: “ZShch” - protective; "PR" - attractive; "PD" is imitative.

Ladybug. 5. Nepenthes (insectivorous plant).
Butterfly. 6. Bittern.
Darkling beetle. 7. Male pheasant.
Sea horse. 8. Praying Mantis.

Life cycle - the period of insect development from egg to sexually mature state is called the life cycle, or generation. The duration of insect development in any phase depends to a certain extent on the climate and weather conditions of the places in which they live.

Diapause- the needs of the insect body for warmth and food could not be satisfied, which was the reason for the formation of various adaptations to these environmental conditions. Such adaptations are slowdowns and interruptions in development caused by inhibition of metabolism and the transition of the insect from a state of activity to a state of rest of varying depths and durations. The deepest state of physiological inhibition of metabolism is diapause, which is a special adaptation in life cycle insects It can occur at all phases of insect development. In accordance with this, a distinction is made between embryonic diapause (in the egg phase) of leaf beetles, larval (in the larval phase), pupal (in the pupa phase) of moths, and imaginal diapause (in the adult phase) of leaf beetles. The vital activity of the body during diapause is ensured by fat deposits: special fat-protein granules and glycogen.

A distinction is made between obligatory or obligate diapause and optional or facultative diapause.

Obligatory diapause ensures that only one generation occurs during the year. in the gypsy moth, oak green leaf roller It creates conditions for spring feeding on young leaves containing a large amount of essential nutrients. During diapause, hidden processes of physiological restructuring occur, ultimately leading to the restoration of the ability for active development. This process is called reactivation.

One of the widespread mechanisms of reactivation is exposure to low temperatures.

Insect defenses

Insects are characterized by a number of biological features, knowledge of which is necessary. These include protective equipment and social lifestyle. Among the protective devices, a distinction is made between active defense and deterrence, mimicry and cryptism. Bees and wasps, the phenomenon of protective color and shape is especially widespread among forest insects. moth caterpillars. Some groups of higher hymenoptera and termites lead a so-called social lifestyle. So, in general, polymorphism is one of the forms of adaptation of insects to external environment developed through the process of natural selection.

Among the protective devices, a distinction is made between active defense and deterrence, mimicry and cryptism.

Bees and wasps use their stings for active defense and attack. Ground beetles expel poisonous liquid from the anus. The mantis throwing out blood in the form of foam is very effective. The night peacock butterfly sits with folded wings, and when birds approach, it opens them and “threatens” with four huge ocellated spots. The ocellated hawk moth and a number of other butterflies do the same. As danger approaches, the false caterpillars of the pine sawfly simultaneously bend their body, taking an S-shape. Coccinellids, moths and many other insects have repellent colors. Their coloring, usually consisting of a combination of sharp contrasting tones, “scares” the enemy when he approaches.

Another protective device in insects is mimicry. A number of insects, deprived of reliable forms of defense, have an appearance reminiscent of others, more armed with means of defense. An insect that is imitated by another is called a model, and the phenomenon of imitation itself is called mimicry. An example is the glass butterfly, which imitates a wasp, hornet or bee. Mimicry is very common among this family, so many of its representatives are called bee-shaped, wasp-shaped, ant-shaped glass, etc.

The phenomenon of protective color and shape is especially widespread among forest insects. Cryptism (crypto - hidden) is that insects imitate objects in their environment and therefore become invisible against the background of their habitat. Cryptic appearance does not provide a complete guarantee of preservation, but helps the individual in the struggle for life. Thus, moth caterpillars often imitate dry twigs on trees, praying mantises and grasshoppers are colored to match the color of green grass in meadows, the wings of a pine silkworm are difficult to distinguish against the background of the bark of a pine trunk, and the armyworm is almost invisible on the bark of an oak tree. Sometimes various dark and light spots on the flat wing of a butterfly look like depressions and bulges. The tropical callima butterfly, or leaf butterfly, perfectly imitates one when sitting at rest with its wings folded. Coloration, shape and resting posture are coordinated and constitute an entire system or cryptome. All of the protective devices described above were once used by Darwin to prove natural selection and are widely known in biology.

Some groups of higher hymenoptera and termites lead a so-called social lifestyle. They live in large families. The main thing with this way of life is the development of polymorphism, when there are several externally different forms of the same species. These forms are generally adapted to perform their specific functions in populations or families of species. Usually in one family there are females, males and workers. A family has one or more sexually mature females, called queens. The bulk of the family consists of immature females, called workers. Males are most often present in the family only during the mating period of females. The queen usually lays a huge number of eggs. Raising offspring is entrusted to workers. All social insects build complex nests.

The mechanism of polymorphism in social insects is very complex. Here, the exchange of food between all members of the family (trophotaxis), in which telergons secreted by the female and inhibiting the development of the gonads in working individuals, is carried, as well as the directed education of the larvae and a number of other influences.

The environment includes:

natural - appeared on Earth regardless of human activity;
technogenic - created by people;
external is everything that is around the body and also affects its functioning.

How do living organisms change their environment? They contribute to changes in the gas composition of the air (as a result of photosynthesis) and take part in the formation of relief, soil, and climate. Thanks to the influence of living beings:

oxygen content increased;
the amount of carbon dioxide has decreased;
the composition of the waters of the World Ocean has changed;
appeared rocks organic content.

Thus, the relationship between living organisms and their habitat is a strong circumstance that provokes various transformations. There are four distinct living environments.

Ground-air habitat

It includes air and ground parts and is excellent for the reproduction and development of living beings. This is a rather complex and diverse environment, which is characterized by high degree organization of all living things. Soil exposure to erosion and pollution leads to a decrease in the number of living beings. In the terrestrial world, organisms have a fairly well developed external and internal skeleton. This happened because the density of the atmosphere is much less than the density of water. One of the significant conditions for existence is the quality and structure of air masses. They are in continuous motion, so the air temperature can change quite quickly. Living things that live in this environment must adapt to its conditions, so they have developed an adaptation to sudden temperature fluctuations.

The air-terrestrial habitat is more diverse than the aquatic one. Pressure drops are not so pronounced here, but a lack of moisture occurs quite often. For this reason, terrestrial living creatures have mechanisms that help them with the supply of water to the body, mainly in arid areas. Plants develop a strong root system and a special waterproof layer on the surface of the stems and leaves. Animals have an exceptional structure of external integument. Their lifestyle helps maintain water balance. An example would be migration to watering holes. The composition of the air also plays an important role for terrestrial living beings, providing the chemical structure of life. The raw material source for photosynthesis is carbon dioxide. Nitrogen is required to connect nucleic acids and proteins.

Adaptation to the environment

The adaptation of organisms to their environment depends on their place of residence. Flying species have developed a certain body shape, namely:

light limbs;
lightweight design;
streamlining;
presence of wings for flight.

In climbing animals:

long grasping limbs, as well as a tail;
thin long body;
strong muscles that allow you to pull up your torso and throw it from branch to branch;
sharp claws;
powerful grasping fingers.

Running living creatures have the following features:

strong limbs with low mass;
reduced number of protective horny hooves on the toes;
strong hind legs and short forelimbs.

In some species of organisms, special adaptations allow them to combine the characteristics of flight and climbing. For example, having climbed a tree, they are capable of long jumps and flights. Other types of living organisms can run fast and also fly.

Aquatic habitat

Initially, the life activity of creatures was associated with water. Its features include salinity, flow, food, oxygen, pressure, light and contribute to the systematization of organisms. Pollution of water bodies has a very bad effect on living creatures. For example, due to a decrease in water level in the Aral Sea, most of the flora and fauna, especially fish, have disappeared. A huge variety of living organisms live in the expanses of water. From water they extract everything they need for life, namely food, water and gases. For this reason, the entire diversity of aquatic living creatures must adapt to the basic features of existence, which are formed by chemical and physical properties water. The salt composition of the environment is also of great importance for aquatic inhabitants.

A huge number of representatives of flora and fauna, which spend their lives in suspension, are regularly found in the thickness of the water body. The ability to soar is provided physical features water, that is, by the force of pushing, as well as by the special mechanisms of the creatures themselves. For example, multiple appendages, which significantly increase the surface of the body of a living organism compared to its mass, increase friction with water. The next example of inhabitants of an aquatic habitat is jellyfish. Their ability to stay in a thick layer of water is determined by the unusual shape of the body, which looks like a parachute. In addition, the density of water is very similar to the density of the body of a jellyfish.

Living organisms whose habitat is water have adapted to movement in different ways. For example, fish and dolphins have a streamlined body shape and fins. They are able to move quickly thanks to the unusual structure of the outer integument, as well as the presence of special mucus, which reduces friction with water. U individual species beetles living in aquatic environment, the exhaust air released from the respiratory tract is retained between the elytra and the body, thanks to which they are able to rapidly rise to the surface, where the air is released into the atmosphere. Most protozoa move using cilia that vibrate, for example, ciliates or euglena.

Adaptations for the life of aquatic organisms

Different habitats for animals allow them to adapt and exist comfortably. The body of organisms is able to reduce friction with water due to the characteristics of the cover:

hard, smooth surface;
the presence of a soft layer present on the outer surface of the hard body;
mucus.

Limbs represented:

flippers;
membranes for swimming;
fins.

The shape of the body is streamlined and has a variety of variations:

flattened in the dorso-abdominal region;
round in cross section;
laterally flattened;
torpedo-shaped;
teardrop-shaped.

In an aquatic habitat, living organisms need to breathe, so they developed:

gills;
air intakes;
breathing tubes;
bubbles that replace the lung.

Features of habitat in reservoirs

Water is able to accumulate and retain heat, so this explains the absence of strong temperature fluctuations, which are quite common on land. The most significant property of water is the ability to dissolve other substances in itself, which are subsequently used both for respiration and for nutrition by organisms living in the water element. In order to breathe, oxygen is necessary, so its concentration in water is of great importance. The water temperature in the polar seas is close to freezing, but its stability has allowed the formation of certain adaptations that ensure life even in such harsh conditions.

This environment is home to a huge variety of living organisms. Fish, amphibians, large mammals, insects, mollusks, and worms live here. The higher the temperature of the water, the less diluted oxygen it contains, which dissolves better in fresh water than in sea water. Therefore, few organisms live in tropical waters, while polar waters contain a huge variety of plankton, which is used as food by fauna, including large cetaceans and fish.

Breathing is carried out over the entire surface of the body or through special organs - gills. For successful breathing, regular renewal of water is required, which is achieved by various vibrations, primarily by the movement of the living organism itself or its adaptations, such as cilia or tentacles. Great value The salt composition of water also supports life. For example, mollusks and crustaceans require calcium to build their shells or shells.

Soil environment

It is located in the upper fertile layer of the earth's crust. This is a rather complex and very important component of the biosphere, which is closely connected with its other parts. Some organisms remain in the soil their entire life, others - half. For plants, soil plays a vital role. What living organisms have mastered the soil habitat? It contains bacteria, animals, and fungi. Life in this environment is largely determined by climatic factors such as temperature.

Adaptations for soil habitats

For a comfortable existence, organisms have special body parts:

small digging limbs;
long and thin body;
digging teeth;
streamlined body without protruding parts.

The soil may lack air and be dense and heavy, which in turn has led to the following anatomical and physiological adaptations:

strong muscles and bones;
resistance to oxygen deficiency.

The body coverings of underground organisms must allow them to move both forward and backward in dense soil without problems, so the following characteristics have evolved:

short wool, resistant to abrasion and able to be ironed back and forth;
lack of hair;
special secretions that allow the body to slide.

Specific sense organs have developed:

the ears are small or completely absent;
there are no eyes or they are significantly reduced;
tactile sensitivity has become highly developed.

It is difficult to imagine vegetation without soil. A distinctive feature of the soil habitat of living organisms is that the creatures are associated with its substrate. One of the significant differences in this environment is the regular formation of organic matter, usually due to dying plant roots and falling leaves, and this serves as a source of energy for the organisms growing in it. The pressure on land resources and environmental pollution negatively affect the organisms living here. Some species are on the verge of extinction.

Organismal environment

The practical impact of humans on the environment affects the size of animal and plant populations, thereby increasing or decreasing the number of species, and in some cases, their death. Environmental factors:

biotic - associated with the influence of organisms on each other;
anthropogenic - associated with human influence on the environment;
abiotic - refers to inanimate nature.

Industry is the largest sector that plays a vital role in the economy of modern society. It affects the environment at all stages of the industrial cycle, from the extraction of raw materials to the disposal of products due to their further unsuitability. The main types of negative impact of leading industries on the environment of living organisms:

Energy is the basis for the development of industry, transport, agriculture. The use of almost every fossil (coal, oil, natural gas, wood, nuclear fuel) negatively affects and pollutes natural complexes.
Metallurgy. One of the most dangerous aspects of its impact on the environment is considered to be the technogenic dispersion of metals. The most harmful pollutants are: cadmium, copper, lead, mercury. Metals enter the environment at almost all stages of production.
The chemical industry is one of the dynamically developing industries in many countries. Petrochemical production emits hydrocarbons and hydrogen sulfides into the atmosphere. The production of alkalis produces hydrogen chloride. Substances such as nitrogen and carbon oxides, ammonia and others are also released in large volumes.

In conclusion

The habitat of living organisms influences them both directly and indirectly. Creatures constantly interact with the environment, receiving food from it, but at the same time releasing the products of their metabolism. In the desert, the dry and hot climate limits the existence of most living organisms, just as in the polar regions, only the hardiest representatives can survive due to the cold. In addition, they not only adapt to a particular environment, but also evolve.

Plants release oxygen and maintain its balance in the atmosphere. Living organisms influence the properties and structure of the earth. Tall plants shade the soil, thereby helping to create a special microclimate and redistribute moisture. Thus, on the one hand, the environment changes organisms, helping them improve through natural selection, and on the other, the species of living organisms change the environment.